ISSN ………… - International Network for Bamboo and Rattan

BAMBOO FOR PULP AND PAPER 

A State of the Art Review 

With Annotated Bibliography 

T.K. Dhamodaran 

Scientist (Wood Science) 

R. Gnanaharan 

Research Co-ordinator 

K. Sankara Pillai 

Librarian 

KERALA FOREST RESEARCH INSTITUTE 

Peechi – 680 653, Kerala, India 

March 2003 

BAMBOO FOR PULP AND PAPER 

A State of the Art Review 

With Annotated Bibliography

Kerala Forest Research Institute 

Peechi – 680 653, Kerala, India 

This report forms part of the Consultancy project “Preparation of State of the Art Reviews (STARs) along 

with Annotated Bibliographies on selected topics of Bamboos and Rattans”. 

Project Co-ordinator : K. Sankara Pillai 

Project Leader 

Bamboo Information Centre – India 

OTHER STARs 

1. Dendrocalamus strictus 

2. Bambusa bambos 

3. Management of Natural Sympodial Bamboo Stands and Plantations. 

4. Collection, Conservation, Evaluation and Utilization of Rattan Germplasm. 

5. Bamboos in Agroforestry Systems. 

This work was carried out with the financial support from the International Network for Bamboo and Rattan (INBAR)

PREFACE 

Bamboo is regarded as a major resource that meets the need of common people and also as a poverty 

alleviator due to its multi purpose uses. As a result of this, bamboo resources are of great importance in 

the rural socio-economy of several tropical countries. As pulp and paper being the major commercial 

bamboo consuming sector, it is very necessary to have an updated information on the state of art related 

to its pulping processes and technologies for the optimal utilization of this valuable resource. It is in this 

context, for the proper management and utilization of bamboo for paper and pulp, the International 

Network for Bamboo and Rattan (INBAR) assigned KFRI to prepare a State of the Art Review (STAR) 

on Bamboos for Pulp and Paper. 

The report consists of three parts. In Part I, a brief highlights of pulp and paper making principles are 

dealt with, which is very essential to follow the Part II, Bamboo for Pulp and Paper. An annotated 

bibliography, arranged alphabetically by Author’s name is given in Part III. 

I sincerely thank INBAR for providing financial support for preparing the report. Dr. T.K. Dhamodaran, 

Scientist (Wood Science), Dr. R. Gnanaharan, Research Coordinator and Shri. K. Sankara Pillai, 

Librarian, KFRI, authors of this report deserve special mention for preparing an excellent report. 

I hope this report will equally be useful to researchers, wood, pulp and paper technologists and pulp 

industry and all concerned with the promotion of sustainable utilization of bamboo for pulp and paper. 

Peechi J.K.Sharma Ph.D 

March 2003 Director

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

Our sincere thanks are due to International Network for Bamboo and Rattan (INBAR) for providing 

financial assistance, without which the work could not have been materialised. Thanks are due to 

Dr. J.K. Sharma, Director, Kerala Forest Research Institute, for his keen interest and encouragements 

shown in the study. We also thank Mr. K.H. Hussain, Mrs. N. Sarojam and Mr. K.F. George for their help 

in the bibliographic compilation. Thanks are due to Mr. B. Jithesh, Technical Assistant, Library and 

Mrs. Sheeba Sabu, Technical Assistant, Wood Science Division of KFRI for DTP work and Mr. P.K. 

Thulasidas, Wood Science Division of KFRI for Technical assistance. Thanks are due to Dr. K.M.Bhat 

and Dr. C. Mohanan, Scientists of KFRI for editorial scrutiny. 

Authors

PREFACE 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

CONTENTS 

PART I. PULPING AND PAPER MAKING PRINCIPLES 

1. Introduction 1 

2. Early History of Pulp and Paper Production 2 

3. Chemical Constituents and Fibre Morphology 4 

3.1. Chemical constituents 4 

3.2 Fibre morphology 6 

3.3. Characterization of pulp 6 

4. Processes and Principles 8 

4.1. Mechanical pulping 8 

4.2. Chemical pulping 9 

4.3. Bleaching 21 

4.4. Recovery of pulping chemicals 26 

4.5. Paper manufacture 26 

PART II. BAMBOO FOR PULP AND PAPER 

5. Bamboos : Distribution, Utilization , Storage and Economics 31 

5.1. About bamboos 31 

5.2. Distribution of bamboos 31 

5.3. History of pulp production from bamboo 32 

5.4. Decay while storage and control measures 34 

5.5. Economics of bamboo plantation 37 

6. Chemical composition 39 

7. Fibre morphology 43 

8. Types of pulp 47 

9. Pulping 49 

9.1. Mechanical pulping 49 

9.2. Chemical pulping 50 

9.3. Non-conventional and other pulping methods 55 

9.4. Effect of variables – Factors affecting pulp yield 56 

9.5. Effect of active alkali content 58 

9.6. Pulping of mixture of bamboo and hardwoods 59 

9.7. Effect of age, position of culm and nodes 62 

9.8. Optimum utilization 63 

i 

Page

10. Bleaching 65 

11. Beating 70 

12. Pulp and sheet characteristics 72 

13. Black liquor 77 

14. Types of paper 78 

15. Industrial experience 79 

16. Species suitability 83 

17. Appendices 99 

1 A. Some standard terms used in pulping processes 99 

1 B. Explanation of some general terms used in describing pulp strength properties 99 

2 A. Proximate chemical analysis, fibre dimensions and pulp strength of some cellulose 

raw materials used in paper making 99 

2 B. Composition of raw materials used in paper making 100 

3 A. Proximate chemical analysis of two important Indian bamboo species 101 

3 B. Variation of fibre characteristics of some Indian bamboos 101 

4 A. Survey of pulping processes 102 

4 B. Non-conventional pulping procedures 

5 A. Alkali consumption, kappa number, unbleached pulp yield and chemical 

composition of some Indian bamboos and their pulps 105 

5 B. Characteristics of unbleached cold-soda pulp 105 

5 C. Characteristics of rayon grade pulp produced from bamboos by 106 

M/s. Gwalior Rayons, Kerala, India 

6 A. Bleaching chemicals 107 

6 B. General conditions/ Parameters governing bleaching processes 107 

6 C. Symbols used to describe sequences used in multi-stage bleaching of pulps 108 

6 D. Common industrial bleaching sequences 109 

6 E. Non-established bleaching sequences 109 

7 Mean values of strength properties of unbeaten and beaten pulps of some 

Indian bamboo species 110 

8 The suitability of some Indian bamboos for pulp and paper 111 

9 A. Paper grades 112 

9 B. Types of commercial papers/ boards produced in India from bamboo pulp 117 

PART III. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 119 

Paper Mills and History of Pulp and Paper 1 

General Pulping and Paper Making 3 

Bamboo Resources and Distribution 10 

Bamboo for Pulp, Paper and Rayon 17 

Species Suitability for Pulp and Paper 27 

ii

Anatomy and Chemical Constituents 31 

Cellulose, Hemicellulose and Lignin 34 

Fibre Morphology and Characteristics 42 

Mechanical Pulping 47 

Chemical Pulping 48 

Kraft Pulping 58 

Rayon Grade Pulping 62 

Mixed Pulping 63 

Bleaching and Beating 65 

Storage of Bamboo and Pulp 69 

AUTHOR INDEX 75 

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PART I. PULPING AND PAPER MAKING PRINCIPLES 

1. INTRODUCTION 

Pulp is the most important product of chemical conversion of ligno-cellulosic materials. In bamboo 

growing countries, like India, bamboo is a main raw material for producing pulp for paper and rayon. The 

gap between production and requirement for paper and paper products keeps increasing with the standard 

of living is going up. The term ‘pulp’ is used generically for mechanical pulps, semi-chemical and 

chemical pulps. Before dealing with the topic ‘bamboo for pulp and paper’, it is important to have a 

minimum understanding of different pulping processes. Part I deals primarily with an overview of early 

history, chemical constituents and fibre morphology of ligno-cellulosic material and the different 

processes available for producing pulp and paper. Part II deals specifically on the role of bamboo in the 

production of pulp and paper. Some of the standard terms used in pulping processes are given in 

Appendix 1. Part III contains the annotated bibliography.

2. EARLY HISTORY OF PULP AND PAPER PRODUCTION 

The invention of paper making in about AD105 belongs to the Chinese. The first papers were made to 

some extent from the inner bark of paper mulberry tree and to a larger extent from bamboo 

(Libby 1962) 7a . The principles behind the Chinese process of making paper during those days were 

almost the same as that employed today in the manufacture of hand-made papers, in so far as the 

mechanical operations of forming the sheets are concerned. The culms of bamboo were cut near the 

ground and sorted into bundles according to age. The younger the bamboo, the better the quality of the 

paper that was made from it. The bundles were buried under of mud and water for a period of two weeks 

in order to soften them. Later, they were taken out, cut into small pieces, ground in mortars with a little 

water and pounded to a pulp with large wooden pestles. This semi-fluid mass, after being cleansed of the 

coarsest parts, was transferred to a tub of water, so that the whole became of sufficient consistency to 

form the paper. Then, a sheet was taken up with a mould or frame, which was constructed of bamboo in 

small strips made smooth and round like wires, which allowed the water to drain away, leaving a sheet of 

felted fibres. On each side of the tub was placed a stove with an inclined top of clay. A sheet was then put 

on one stove by removing the edge of the mould and laying the paper flat on the stove to which it 

adhered. The sheet previously put on the stove was then removed and the process was repeated. A 

smoother paper was obtained by brushing a solution of fish glue or alum onto the sheets and polishing by 

rubbing them with smooth stones. 

The Chinese established a paper mill at Samarkand sometime during the 6 th century. In AD795 the Arabs 

introduced the process and developed it further in their own country. The process was introduced into 

Europe through the crusaders, who visited Palestine and Syria during the 12 th century, and later many 

improvements were incorporated. France had a paper mill in Essonnes in 1189. By this time, wire had 

replaced the reeds for the moulds. The first paper mill in Germany was erected in 1336, and in England in 

1498. The first paper mill in the United States was established in Philadelphia during 1696. In 1798, 

Louis Robert, a printer’s helper, invented a machine that would make paper in lengths of 12- 15 meters. 

The invention of the ‘fourdrinier’ machine during the 19 th century and the ‘cylinder’ machine during 1809 

marked revolutionary changes in the art of paper making. 

The first mill for producing full chemical pulp by the sulphite (soda) process was erected at Philadelphia 

during 1855. The invention of sulphate (kraft) pulping made a revolution in the manufacture of wood pulp 

and numerous kraft pulp mills were established. Pulping by the neutral sulphite semichemical process was 

employed for the production of corrugated board in the United States in 1925. 

2

Up to 1890, the purpose of pulp production was exclusively to furnish the paper industry. In 1892, 

however, Cross and Bevan discovered the xanthation of cellulose and realized the possibility of producing 

a regenerated cellulose fibre, rayon. The viscose process was developed and in 1903, a Norwegian 

sulphite mill began to deliver bleached sulphite pulp for textile purposes to England. The expansion of 

viscose industry was marked with the possibility of utilizing kraft pulp produced by the prehydrolysis 

kraft process for dissolving grade pulp and the first mill for producing prehydrolysis kraft pulp was 

started in Germany in 1929. 

3

3. CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS AND FIBRE MORPHOLOGY 

Even though any ligno-cellulosic material including bamboo can be pulped with suitable methods, 

information on the chemical constitution and fibre morphology is important in deciding their technocommercial 

suitability as well as the method of pulping. Generally, long-fibred materials with high 

cellulose content, low lignin, extractives and ash contents are preferred. Fibre length influences the 

tearing, burst and tensile strength properties of sheets. Properties like lumen and fibre diameter as well as 

their ratio (flexibility coefficient) and the wall thickness are known to affect the pulp strength. 

3.1. Chemical constituents 

3.1.1. Cellulose 

Cellulose is the most abundant form of the naturally occurring compounds of carbon. This forms the 

principal component of the cell wall of all woods, straws and grasses (bamboo). As it is most frequently 

found in fibrous form, it has got good tensile strength, and as it is insoluble in cold and hot water, it forms 

an important component of pulp and paper. Cellulose is a polymeric carbohydrate, a polysaccharide with 

repeating units of glucose. The neighbouring glucose units are joined through carbon atoms 1 and 4. 

Cellulose being relatively resistant to oxidation, lignin and other colouring matters can be removed with 

bleaching agents without appreciable damage to the strength of pulp. The alpha or true cellulose content 

of a fibrous material does not affect directly its pulpability, but the higher the alpha-cellulose content of a 

material, the higher the yield of fully delignified, bleached chemical and semichemical pulps. 

3.1.2. Hemicelluloses 

When wood is freed from extractives (compounds which are soluble in cold water or in neutral organic 

solvents) and is then carefully freed from lignin, it yields a fibrous product termed holocellulose, which 

represents the sum total of cellulose and other polysaccharides; the latter are usually termed 

hemicelluloses (or polyoses). Pulping processes remove not only lignin (imperfectly) but also some of 

the less resistant hemicelluloses; so, holocellulose cannot be obtained by ordinary pulping operation. 

The hemicelluloses contain mainly sugar units other than glucose (such as xylose, mannose, arabinose, 

rhamnose, galactose, etc.). Usually the dominant unit in the hemicelluloses is xylose, but frequently 

mannose units are present in appreciable amounts, especially in the case of the hemicelluloses of 

coniferous woods. The hemicellulose fractions which contain xylose (and uronic acid) units are often 

4

termed ‘xylans’ or more loosely ‘pentosans’. Those contain mannose units linked to each other and to 

glucose units have been referred as ‘mannans’. 

The hemicelluloses (when freed from lignin) swell more than does cellulose and are in part dispersible in 

water. They have adhesive properties not shared by cellulose. Whereas cellulose is fibrous, 

hemicelluloses are non-fibrous. Whereas cellulose is quite insoluble in cold alkali, hemicelluloses are 

quite soluble in dilute caustic soda. In any chemical pulping operations, some of the initial hemicelluloses 

are retained in the pulp. A portion of the less resistant hemicelluloses is removed during digestion, and 

their degradation products are then found in the spent liquors. 

In the case of pulps freed from lignin by adequate and controlled bleaching, the hemicelluloses have been 

shown repeatedly to contribute greatly to tensile and bursting strength and to folding endurance of the 

pulp sheet. Both the quantity and the type of hemicelluloses in a pulp influence the pulp properties and 

the type of paper that can be made from such a pulp. There are certain disadvantages also about their 

presence. These are undesirable for dissolving grade pulp. In the case of certain bleached pulps, these are 

responsible for a loss in brightness of the bleached pulp on storage or aging. 

3.1.3. Lignin 

Lignin is the cementing substance between fibres and tissues and is concentrated mainly in the region of 

the middle lamella and imparts rigidity to wood tissue. Lignin exists in wood or bamboo as branchedchain 

polymer molecules. The lignin may be separated from an associated wood component either by 

preferentially dissolving lignin or by preferentially dissolving non-lignin components. Isolated lignins, in 

general, are amorphous and non-crystalline, and show definite softening points at elevated temperatures. 

The average molecular weight is in the range of 11,000. An important property of lignin is its capacity to 

absorb ultra violet light. The chemical skeleton of lignin is a phenylpropane or a “C6 – C3” or a “C9” type. 

Pulping is basically and mainly a delignification process employing inorganic acids or alkalies and other 

compounds or organic solvents and compounds or by employing biological agents such as certain fungi 

which will selectively attack on lignin, causing its degradation and consequent dissolution. The amount 

and reactivity of lignin have a marked effect on the pulpability of the material. These differ depending 

upon the raw material (softwoods, hardwoods, bamboos, etc.). During most pulping reactions, 

components other than lignin are simultaneously removed. The character of pulp depends upon the form 

and amount of energy supplied for accomplishing the separation. Chemical, mechanical or a combination 

of the two forms of energy are utilized. In general, when chemical energy alone is supplied, completely 

separated fibres are obtained; whereas in mechanical and semichemical pulping (combination of 

5

mechanical and chemical processing) whole fibres, fibre bundles, damaged fibres, and fibre fragments are 

produced. With the various methods now available for partitioning the two forms of energy, pulps of 

widely diverse properties can be processed. Bleaching of pulp is also a process mainly employed for 

further purification of the pulp by removing the remaining portions of lignin and other colour bodies in 

the pulp. 

3.2. Fibre morphology 

Fibre dimensions indicate the suitability of a fibrous raw material for producing pulp. Generally, the 

average fibre length of soft woods, hardwoods and bamboos is 3.5, 1.3 and 2.7 mm respectively. It varies 

within and between species as well as within trees and due to different locations. The fibre length is 

roughly 100 times longer than its diameter. 

The fibre length influences mainly pulp strength, the tearing resistance in particular and to a lesser extent, 

the burst, tensile and the fold. Properties like fibre diameter and lumen diameter, if considered 

individually, have no appreciable influence on pulp strength, but the cell wall thickness is known to 

improve the paper strength. Flexibility coefficient influences tensile strength and, to some extent, the 

burst strength also, while the relative fibre length influences tearing resistance (Siddique and Chowdhury 

1982) 352 . The Runkel ratio (cell wall thickness to lumen diameter) gives an indication of suitability of 

fibres for paper making (Runkel 1949). The values of Runkel ratio are classified into three groups. 

Runkel Runkel ratio values Relative thickness Remarks for paper 

Group 

of cell wall 

making 

1 Less than unity Thin Very good 

2 About equal to unity Medium Good 

3 More than unity Thick Poor 

Wood, bamboo and other grasses falling under Runkel group 1 and 2 are suitable for pulp and paper 

making, while those falling under group 3 are of poor quality for pulping. 

Appendix 2. A & B gives the details of chemical analysis and fibre dimensions of some commonly used 

cellulose raw materials including bamboo for pulp and paper. 

3.3. Characterization of pulp 

An understanding of pulp properties is vital for both internal control purposes and as a means of 

describing the pulp grade for sale. Methods of wood analysis are thoroughly discussed in the monograph 

6

on wood chemistry (Browning 1952) 381 . Descriptions of wood and pulp analyses are found in different 

publications (Sieber 1951 19a ; Merck 1957 53 ; Rydholm 1965) 70 and also in the charts brought out by the 

professional associations of the Pulp Industry in various countries such as the USA (TAPPI Standards), 

Sweden (CCA Standards), Germany (Merkblatt des Vereins der Zellstoff- und Papier-Chemiker und- 

Ingenieure), Scandinavia (Scan- C Standards), and by the International Committee for Cellulose Analysis 

(ICCA Standards). 

3.3.1. Determination of residual lignin 

3.3.1.1. Chlorine number and permanganate / kappa number 

Determination of residual lignin in the pulp is the most important of all pulp analyses. It indicates the 

degree of delignification obtained by the cook and forms the basis of comparison for many of the cooking 

results, such as yield, screenings, pulp brightness, etc. It is based on measurement of a chemical reaction, 

such as chlorination or permanganate oxidation. These methods are more rapid and suitable for adoption 

in the mills, even though they have the drawback of giving only a relative figure for the lignin content and 

not an absolute value. 

Chlorine numbers are obtained by measuring the chlorine which reacts with lignin in substitution and 

oxidation reactions. The Roe chlorine number indicates the grams of chlorine absorbed in 15 minutes at 

20 0 C by 100 gram pulp containing 55 gram water. Its correlation with the lignin content of the pulp is 

fairly straight-lined, with a factor of about 0.9 for sulphite and 0.8 for sulphate (kraft) pulps. 

Permanganate numbers are based on the fact that lignin is rapidly oxidised by potassium permanganate. 

At standardized conditions the excess permanganate can be determined after a certain reaction period. A 

figure for the permanganate consumption can thus be obtained, which is a rapid and accurate measure of 

the lignin content of the pulp. ICCA Standards redefined the permanganate number as Kappa number and 

is related to the Klason lignin content by a factor of 0.13, and to the Roe chlorine number by a factor of 

0.20 for sulphite and 0.16 for kraft pulp. 

7

4. PROCESSES AND PRINCIPLES 

4.1. Mechanical pulping 

Mechanical or groundwood process is the oldest process for converting ligno-cellulosic into pulp and 

its invention by Keller in 1843 in Germany marked a milestone in the history of paper making. 

Mechanical or groundwood pulp is made either by pressing the wood against a revolving grinding 

stone or by passing chips through a mill, in the presence of water. The wood fibres are separated and 

to a considerable degree fragmented. Pulp yield is very high, amounting to nearly 90 per cent of the 

dry–basis weight of the wood processed. Fresh mechanical pulp is light yellow in colour; it is often 

bleached white for the production of papers in which the yellow colour is undesirable. It finds its 

greatest use for newsprint, magazine papers, certain packaging papers and absorbent papers. 

Within the group of mechanical pulping processes (see Appendix 4A), modifications of the traditional 

grinding process include groundwood production with a preceding steaming step, application of 

chemicals, and grinding process under pressure. All processes aim at reducing power consumption 

and improving groundwood properties. The process which applies chemicals before or during 

grinding yields chemigroundwood (CGW). Sulphite, bisulphite solutions, kraft-like liquors, sodium 

hydroxide, sodium bicarbonate, etc. are used for the pretreatment which results in energy savings and 

increased brightness of the groundwood. The use of a pressure-resistant grinding chamber at much 

higher temperatures yields pressure groundwood (PGW). Chemi-pressurized groundwood 

(CPGW) is produced by the use of 5 per cent caustic soda and 2.5 per cent hydrogen peroxide within 

the pressure grinder. 

Another modified mechanical pulping covers the refiner mechanical pulping processes. The 

principal characteristics of refiner mechanical pulping are the use of chips (also wafers or even 

sawdust) and the application of disk refiners of various types for defibration and fibrillation of the raw 

material. Depending on the process conditions, refiner mechanical pulping processes yield different 

types of pulps such as refiner mechanical pulp (RMP), chemi-refiner mechanical pulp (CRMP), 

pressurized refiner mechanical pulp (PRMP), and chemi-thermomechanical pulp (CTMP). 

The Masonite process and the Asplund process come under the refiner mechanical pulping processes 

but they are principally more closely related to the production of fibreboard material. In the Masonite 

process wood is defibred by steam explosion, performed by a quick release of pressure (up to 70 bar) 

after a steam treatment of chips in a digester (‘Mason gun’) at temperatures up to 285 0 C for a few 

seconds. The crude fibre product is further refined and screened. The Asplund process is the first 

thermomechanical process, applying steam at high temperature and disk refining under pressure; thus 

it forms the basic procedure of the thermomechanical pulping. 

8

The most important industrial refiner mechanical pulping process today is the thermomechanical 

pulping (TMP). The process involves an impregnation and preheating step of washed wood chips 

with saturated steam under pressure. The preheated chips are fed to the disk refiner for defibration at 

approximately the same temperature and pressure as in the preheating stage. The secondary refining 

stage is generally carried out at atmospheric pressure. Therefore, the defibred material is expanded 

into a cyclone where the steam is removed, and refined in one or two stages to the desired freeness. 

The rejects from screening and cleaning are thickened and recycled to the refining step or separately 

refined. The TMP process yields 91-98 per cent pulp which has a lower brightness than groundwood 

pulp. 

In the chemimechanical process (CMP), mechanically destructed chips are impregnated with 

alkaline peroxide liquor (NaOH/H2O2) at 40-60 0 C at atmospheric pressure for 1.5–2 hrs before lowconsistency 

(5%) refining. 

Air pollution problems in mechanical pulping are less significant than in chemical pulping. However, 

RMP, TMP and particularly CRMP and CTMP processes cause mill effluents with considerable 

amounts of extractives. 

The world-wide increase in the application of mechanical, thermomechanical and chemimechanical 

pulping processes to produce pulps from non-wood fibre sources including bamboo is described 

extensively by Misra (1980) 521 . 

4.2. Chemical pulping 

Chemical pulping employs chemical reagents to effect a separation of the cellulose fibres from other 

wood components. Wood chips are cooked with suitable chemicals in aqueous solution, usually at 

elevated temperatures and pressures. The objective is to dissolve the lignin and other extraneous 

compounds, leaving the cellulose intact and in fibrous form. This objective can be realised to a 

commercially satisfactory degree through the use of chemical reagents, although there is an 

appreciable dissolution of carbohydrate material and degradation of cellulose. Pulp yields are usually 

about 50 per cent of the wood weight. Because the chemical processes consume relatively large 

quantities of inorganic chemicals such as alkalies, paper makers devised methods for reagent chemical 

recovery from the spent cooking liquor; recovery has remained an integral part of chemical pulping. 

Environmental and economical concerns necessitated chemical recovery as a very important part of 

chemical pulping. 

9

4.2.1. Alkaline pulping processes 

The soda process and the sulphate(or kraft) process are the two principal alkaline pulping techniques 

and the basis for several modified alkaline processes, including kraft pulping after a prehydrolysis 

step for the production of dissolving pulp. Sodium hydroxide is the principal cooking chemical in 

both processes, while in sulphate pulping sodium sulphide is an additional pulping component. Both 

processes received their names from the regeneration chemicals used to compensate for the loss of 

sodium hydroxide, namely sodium carbonate (soda) and sodium sulphate, respectively. 

4.2.1.1. Soda process 

Soda process, the first process to manufacture chemical pulp, was invented by Hugh Burgess in 1851, 

employed caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) solution for cooking. The soda pulp is of relatively low 

strength and use of the process is limited to manufacture of filler pulps from hardwoods, which are 

then mixed with a stronger fibre for printing papers. 

4.2.1.2. Kraft (sulphate) process 

In 1884, a German chemist, Karl F. Dahl employed sodium sulphate in place of Sodium carbonate 

(soda ash) the chemical recovery system. This substitution produced cooking liquor that contained 

sodium sulphide along with caustic soda. Pulp so produced was stronger than soda pulp and was 

called kraft pulp, so named from the German and Swedish word for ‘strong’ and the process is 

termed as kraft process. The process is also termed as sulphate process because of the use of sodium 

sulphate (salt cake) in the chemical makeup. Sulphate, however, is not an active ingredient of the 

cooking liquor. The term ‘sulphate process’ is perhaps a misnomer, or at least misleading, as it might 

cause one to suspect that sulphate rather sulphide is used in the actual cooking. Almost any species of 

wood can be pulped by the sulphate process, which may be considered practically a universal pulping 

process. Resins or pitch, if present, are all readily saponified in the alkali employed and are 

chemically altered and dissolved in the kraft process. This material is removed from the pulp and 

becomes a valuable by-product. Bark and knots yield to kraft cooking, lignin is easily removed, and 

cellulose remains relatively stable. Kraft pulp, however, was dark in colour and was difficult to 

bleach. For many years, the growth of the process was slow because of its limitation to papers in 

which colour and brightness were unimportant. In the 1930s, with the discovery of new bleaching 

techniques, bleached kraft pulp became commercially important. The availability of pulp of high 

whiteness and the expanding demand for unbleached kraft in packaging resulted in rapid growth of 

the process, making kraft process the predominant wood-pulping method. Many soda mills were 

converted to adopt kraft process because of the greater strength of the pulp. A liquor- recovery system 

is always an essential part of kraft pulping. The dissolved organic constituents in the spent pulping 

10

liquors are burned for steam generation or some, like the turpentine and tall oil are recovered, and the 

inorganic pulping chemicals are recovered and reused. 

In the kraft cooking operation, wood chips are prepared and fed to digesters. These huge cylindrical 

towers have a number of zones or compartments. Wood chips and cooking liquor are fed into the top 

and injected into successive zones of high pressure and temperature, where impregnation and cooking 

takes place as the chips progress downward. Additional zones wash the spent liquor from the chips. In 

batch cooking, after the digester is charged with chips, a mixture of “black liquor”, the spent liquor 

from a previous cook, and “white liquor”, a solution of NaOH and sodium sulphide from the chemical 

recovery plant, is pumped in. The digester is heated either by direct injection of steam or by the 

circulation of cooking liquor through a heat exchanger. After completion of the cook, the contents of 

the digester are blown to a blowpit by rapid opening of valve. The violence of the blow defibres the 

cooked chips. The spent cooking liquor is washed from the pulp; the later is then screened and sent to 

the bleach plant or directly to the paper mill if it is to be used unbleached. Some of the spent liquor 

(black liquor) is used for an admixture with white liquor to charge new cooks; the remainder is sent to 

the recovery plant to reconstitute cooking chemicals. The quantity of sodium present in the black 

liquor is such that its re-use is economically necessary. 

4.2.1.3. Prehydrolysis kraft pulping 

For dissolving grade pulp, the purity of kraft pulps is insufficient. Purification of kraft pulps is 

difficult since the impurities are rendered alkali-stable during the kraft cook. Therefore, an entirely 

different method has been applied to make kraft pulps of sufficient reactivity for dissolving purposes, 

namely prehydrolysis prior to kraft cooking. This consists of treatment at fairly low temperature with 

concentrated acids, at intermediate cooking temperature with dilute acids or high cooking temperature 

with water only. A considerable part of the hemicelluloses and fairly little cellulose are hydrolysed to 

shorter chains, part of which dissolve in the cooking liquor together with a limited fraction of acidsoluble 

lignin. In the subsequent kraft cook the main delignification reaction takes place. The net 

result of the two-stage prehydrolysis- kraft cook is therefore a high-alpha pulp of reduced yield. The 

yield, as well as the alphacellulose content, is very much dependent on the extent of prehydrolysis. 

About 87- 97 per cent alphacellulose content can be achieved by this process. 

4.2.1.4. Anthraquinone as an additive in alkaline pulping 

The use of anthraquinone (AQ) as an additive in the alkaline pulping processes is found to have the 

benefits of increased delignification rates as well as reduced alkali charges and improved pulp 

properties and yields. AQ acts as a redox catalyst in the liquor system. 

11

By addition of 0.05 per cent AQ, the cooking time is reduced by 25-35 per cent and the alkali charge 

by 5 per cent while yields increase by 1.5-3 per cent at the same residual lignin level and comparable 

strength properties are obtained as in conventional kraft pulping (Goel et al. 1980). 

4.2.1.5. Sulphite process 

The ‘sulphite process’ was invented during 1857 by an American chemist, B.C. Tilghman who 

observed the effect of sulphurous acid in softening wood. He obtained cellulose fibres by treating 

wood with bisulphite–sulphurous acid solutions under high temperature and pressure. The base used 

was calcium and later magnesium. Sodium and ammonium are also used as base, which are having 

advantages in liquor-recovery operations. Sulphite pulps are relatively light in colour, are easily 

bleached to a high-white colour, have moderately good strength properties. Sulphite pulp is almost 

pure cellulose and is used in fine papers. 

4.2.2. Semichemical pulping 

Semichemical pulping processes are characterised in principle by a chemical treatment preceded by a 

mechanical refining step for defibring or fibrizing. This general definition also applies to the 

chemimechanical processes and the high-yield chemical pulping processes such as the sulphite and 

kraft. It is more suitable to hardwoods. 

The chemical treatment in semichemical and chemimechanical pulping can be effected with reagents 

like sodium sulphite, caustic soda, and kraft liquor. The sodium sulphite is usually buffered to near 

neutrality with sodium carbonate or bicarbonate or kraft green liquor. 

The most important semichemical process is undoubtedly the neutral sulphite semichemical (NSSC) 

process. The general advantages of the NSSC process are low requirements with regard to wood 

quality and species, high yields, relatively low consumption of chemicals at a given residual lignin 

content, low capital investment and profitable small production units as compared to full chemical 

pulping. Besides single hardwoods and hardwood mixtures, mixtures of hardwoods and softwoods 

can also be pulped successfully with the NSSC process. NSSC pulping is also used for non-wood 

plants and residues because of the generally low lignin contents of these materials and the widely 

variable conditions offered by the NSSC pulping. 

The principal process involves impregnation with a neutral sodium sulphite pulping liquor at about 

125 0 C for an hour under pressure after a short steaming of the chips at atmospheric pressure, 

followed by cooking at temperatures between 160 and 190 0 C, depending on the cooking time, which 

may vary between 15 minutes and 8 hours, which again depending on the type of digester used and 

12

the desired pulp type and quality. Defibration is carried out by means of single or multi-stage 

refinement process using disk refiners. 

The lignin content of the NSSC pulps is high as compared to those from chemical pulps, and ranges 

between 10 and 15 per cent. Due to the high lignin and polyoses content the NSSC pulp has low 

conventional strength properties. The typical NSSC pulp is normally much more rigid and stiff than 

kraft pulp. Therefore, it is the most typical and suitable fibre material for the production of 

corrugating medium. 

The caustic soda in the soda semichemical process reacts with the lignin-carbohydrate complex to 

form soluble sodium lignate, and the carbohydrates are solubilized by hydrolysis. However, this lignin 

reaction occurs only after a major portion of the caustic soda has been consumed in neutralizing the 

readily available acetyl and methoxyl groups and in hemicellulose dissolution. Therefore, lignin 

removal is the least in alkaline semichemical pulping. 

The cold-soda or cold caustic process, which is less important than the NSSC process, involves in 

principle, the treatment of chips with a sodium hydroxide solution at temperatures generally between 

20 and 30 0 C and a final refiner defibration. In the cold-soda chemimechanical pulping, the caustic 

soda attacks the fibre bond mainly by reaction with the acetyl and other acid groups, which are 

reactive even at room temperature. The most important step in the cold-soda pulping is the 

impregnation with alkaline liquor to reach a very fast but total penetration of the chips, causing the 

necessary swelling of fibres and avoiding considerable losses of polyoses. Impregnation times are 

between 15 and 120 minutes with generally short reaction times of 15-30 minutes in pressurized and 

continuous systems. The concentrations of NaOH are generally low (0.25–2.5%), but up to 10 per 

cent in the case of some roller mill impregnation systems. Cold-soda pulping requires little installation 

capital, and despite the cost of the chemicals, the processing costs are actually lower than in stone 

grinding, because of reduced energy consumption. In some process modifications the liquor is reused 

up to 20 times. 

The cold-soda pulp yield ranges between 85 and 92 per cent, whereby the selectivity of lignin and 

polyoses dissolution is much lower than NSSC pulping. The main disadvantage of cold-soda pulps is 

a generally a low brightness level (40-50%), which can be effectively increased by a two-stage 

peroxide-hypochlorite bleaching. 

As the cold-soda pulps have properties comparable to NSSC pulps, these are used as unbleached 

coarse grades for corrugating medium production, and as bleached grades for printing papers and 

newsprint in combination with groundwood pulp and chemical pulp. 

13

In the kraft semichemical process, the reactions of kraft liquor are similar except thiolignin is 

formed and dissolved. Because of the buffering nature of the sodium sulphhydrate in the kraft liquor, 

attack on the hemicelluloses and cellulose is less in the kraft than in the soda process. 

In the acid sulphite and bisulphite semichemical pulping, the delignification reaction predominates 

under acid conditions. As with the NSSC process, the mechanism of delignification probably involves 

sulphonation of the lignin of the middle lamella in the solid state, followed by hydrolysis to soluble 

lignosulphonic acid and carbohydrates. The hemicelluloses are less dissolved in these acid procedures 

than in the others. 

In the sulphite chemimechanical pulping, the neutral or acid sodium sulphite solutions dissolve 

mainly carbohydrates. The relatively high temperatures employed have an important weakening effect 

on the fibre bond. The material from the chemical stage may be partially disintegrated and defibred 

through the mechanical action of digester discharging, conveying, or deliquoring. The first action in 

the defibring–refining machine is probably heating the fibre bond and further weakening it to the 

point that it will split. Temperature is an important factor in fibrizing semichemically softened fibrous 

material. The second action in the mechanical state is the actual disintegration of the fibre aggregates 

and separation into individual fibres. The third action in the fibrizing zone of the machine, which is 

generally superimposed on the defibring action, is the refining or processing of the individual fibres to 

prepare them for papermaking. This action, which largely involves fibrillation, softening, and 

formation of colloidal, mucilage-like surfaces, is for the purpose of stock preparation as with any 

other type of pulp. The actions occurring during the mechanical part of semichemical pulping may 

take place in one or more stages or passes. This is determined by a number of factors including the 

kind of fibrous material and its particle size, the degree and kind of chemical treatment, and the 

requirements for papermaking. 

The semichemical pulps have chemical and strength properties intermediate between groundwood and 

full chemical pulps. The brightness of these pulps varies from 35 to 55 per cent which can be 

improved to 80 to 85 per cent by multi-stage bleaching. The semichemical pulps are characterized by 

their high lignin and hemicellulose (pentosans) contents. 

4.2.2.1. High-yield chemical pulping 

There is no clear border line between semichemical pulping and the so-cold high-yield chemical 

pulping, or between the resulting pulps. From a practical aspect, many high-yield chemical pulps are 

more or less semichemical pulps with regard to their yields (55-70% and even higher) and typical 

process design (disk refining after the chemical treatment). 

14

High-yield chemical pulps are obtained in principle by modified sulphite and sulphate processes; by 

applying reduced charges of chemicals and / or reduced cooking time and temperature, and a refining 

step after cooking. High-yield sulphite pulps are produced by an acidic sulphite, bisulphite or 

alkaline sulphite process. In high-yield acid sulphite pulping (with calcium, magnesium or sodium 

bases) the reaction rate is usually decreased by cooking at lower temperatures (120-130 0 C) and with 

lower acidity of the liquor, i.e, less sulphur dioxide, than in full chemical sulphite pulping. Common 

yields of unbleached pulps are between 60 and 70 per cent. High-yield acidic sulphite pulps are often 

produced in newsprint sulphite mills, saving up to 30 per cent of wood compared with full chemical 

pulps. The pulps are mainly used as newsprint furnish in mixtures with groundwood and chemical 

pulp. Generally the strength values (except burst strength) and the freeness are lower than those of 

comparable full chemical pulps. 

In high-yield bisulphite pulping, the cooking liquor has no excess of sulphur dioxide and the 

maximum cooking temperature is somewhat higher than that in acidic sulphite pulping. The preferred 

bases are sodium and magnesium. High-yield bisulphite pulps are generally used in the same fields as 

acidic sulphite pulps (eg., in newsprint). 

High-yield alkaline sulphite pulping, a modification of alkaline sulphite pulping, is becoming an 

increasingly interesting alternative to the kraft process. The cooking liquor is buffered between pH 9 

and 12, containing sodium sulphite, sodium carbonate, sodium hydroxide and sodium sulphide. The 

yields lie around 60 per cent and the pulp is brighter than normal kraft pulp. Due to its good strength 

properties, the pulp is useful as linerboard. 

In high-yield kraft or sulphate pulping, the typical karft process is modified either by reducing the 

charge of chemicals by about one-half or by decreasing the cooking time and temperature. The yields 

are generally between 55 and 65 per cent, but even up to 80 per cent are also possible. Usually highyield 

kraft pulps have lower strength values and are darker than normal kraft pulps and NSSC pulps. 

The process is used for both hardwoods and softwoods. 

A survey of different pulping procedures is given in Appendix 4.A. 

4.2.3. Dissolving or Rayon grade pulping 

The chain-like high molecular weight cellulose polymer can be transformed into fibres or films of 

desired properties by spinning, casting, rolling, or extruding, from a melt or from solution. The 

natural, renewable polymer cellulose frequently occurs as fibres that are too short for textile uses. It 

cannot however be converted directly into longer fibres or into film because it can neither be melted 

nor simply dissolved in a solvent owing to strong hydrogen bonding in the material. A suitable 

15

cellulose derivative must first be prepared before it is possible to form a spinning solution from which 

cellulose can be regenerated. The commercially used systems for this purpose are the viscose process 

and, to a lesser extent the cuprammonium (Bemberg) process, and the acetate process. 

The starting material for the preparation of cellulose solutions via complex formation or derivatization 

must be a cellulose of high purity and good processability. Refined wood pulp or the so-called 

dissolving pulp (also termed as chemical conversion pulp, alpha pulp, rayon grade pulp, etc.) is used 

for the manufacture of rayon, cellophane, plastics, films, explosives and other cellulose derivatives, 

etc. The main requirements of a dissolving pulp are good processability (especially good 

filterability), high-yield, and a good overall economy. 

The production of dissolving pulp from materials having high silica and pentosan content is 

complicated. The removal of pentosans can be accomplished by conventional methods, i.e., by acid 

hydrolysis during sulphite cooking or by acid prehydrolysis followed by kraft cooking. The 

difficulties with silica can be partly overcome with repeated hot and cold alkali purifications (Jame 

and Scheuring 1953). The general minimum requirements for a viscose dissolving pulp for producing 

bulk products are listed below : 

Alpha-cellulose : >89% 

Solubility in 5% NaOH :

4.2.4. Non-conventional pulping processes 

The non-conventional pulping processes include well-known pulping principles, which are, however, 

only rarely applied commercially. Their industrial application is often limited by high costs of 

chemicals and special equipment requirements. However, they posses the advantage of more 

environmental friendliness techniques. Appendix 4B gives a survey of different non-conventional 

pulping procedures. Pulping via sodium-xylene sulphonate, aqueous ethanol, ketone-ammonia 

mixture, ethanol amine, peracetic acid, oxygen-alkali, etc., are some of the efforts to develop pollution 

free pulping processes. Among the various processes, some commonly referred methods are described 

below : 

4.2.4.1. Ethanol-water pulping 

Aqueous ethanol is a powerful delignifying agent. Retention of lignin is strongly dependent on pH of 

the cooking liquor. After distilling off the alcohol from ethanol-water black liquor, a major fraction of 

the solubilized lignin separates as a quasi-molten phase. 

4.2.4.2. Hydrotropic pulping 

Certain substances which are only slightly soluble in water become more soluble in the presence of 

certain salts known as hydrotropic salts. These are salts of organic acids which have a large organic 

group and are themselves soluble in water. It has been shown that a near-saturated aqueous solution of 

sodium xylen sulphonate at approximately 70 0 C, will dissolve large quantities of lignin. These salts 

appear to act as catalysts. As they are not consumed, they can be recovered unchanged for reuse. Also 

they hydrolyse wood or straw at a much faster rate than the chemicals used in other processes of pulp 

making. In pulping with sodium xylene sulphonate, cooking could be accomplished in shorter time 

and at lower temperature than with other standard processes. For most woods the composition of the 

hydrotropic cooking solution is approximately one third salt and two thirds water; the solution is 

adjusted to a slightly acid pH (3.5). A typical cook, for paper bags takes 2-3 hrs. at 145 0 C and 4 bar 

pressure. At the end of the cook, the solution is filtered from the pulp and reused half a dozen times 

for other cooks. The solution is then diluted with warm water (40- 60 0 C) to a salt concentration of 8- 

10 per cent for precipitating the lignin. The lignin is removed by filtration and the solution is 

evaporated until the concentration of sodium xylenesulphonate is nearly 30 per cent; at this stage the 

solution can once again be used for cooking. The solution is nonscaling and noncorrosive and free 

from objectionable odour. The pulp is pressed to a consistency of about 40 per cent, washed free of 

the remaining hydrotropic salt. The properties of the pulp fall between those of an acid sulphite and an 

alkaline kraft pulp. The yield is 10 per cent higher and gives a high white colour in the usual 

bleaching processes. 

17

4.2.4.3. Nitric acid pulping 

The nitric acid pulping process consists of a two- stage pulping operation. In the first stage nitric acid 

is used to remove the lignin and, to a lesser degree, the pentosan and other non-cellulosic materials 

without damaging the cellulose fibre. The chemical reactions involved are nitration, oxidation and 

hydrolysis. The second stage consists of an alkaline extraction of the nitrolignin residues encrusting 

the cellulose fibre. I to 4 per cent sodium or ammonium hydroxide is normally used to dissolve and 

disperse these residues. 

Although high-yield pulps (45- 52%) displaying good physical strength properties intermediate 

between kraft and sulphite pulps have been obtained under a wide range of pulping conditions, the 

high cost of the acid, which must be used in relatively large concentrations (52%) and lack of an 

efficient recovery system caused a bottle-neck for commercial adoption of this process on a wide 

scale. 

4.2.4.4. Peracetic acid pulping 

Lignin degradative oxidation is used in the pulping process with peracetic acid. This reagent 

selectively delignifies and gives pulp in high yield but requires large amounts of expensive chemicals 

and therefore not economical. 

4.2.5. Sulphur free chemical pulping processes 

Environment protection concerns led to the development of sulphur free chemical processes as 

alternatives to sulphite and kraft pulping. Non-sulphur alkaline pulping covers delignification 

procedures such as, two-stage soda-oxygen process, single-stage oxygen process, and the alkaline – 

AQ-peroxide process. 

The two-stage soda-oxygen pulping process involves a high-yield soda cook, followed by a 

mechanical defibration and a concluding oxygen bleaching in alkaline medium. The cooking stage has 

the greatest influence on final pulp yields and properties. The yield after the cooking stage should be 

in the range of 60-65 per cent to reach high final yields after the bleaching procedure, and to achieve 

optimal refining conditions with regard to energy input and fibre protection. The yields of bleached 

pulps are comparable to kraft pulp yields, while the strength properties are somewhat lower. A 

practical aspect of this process is the fact that it can run in established kraft pulp digestion and 

recovery equipment with an added refining section and an oxygen bleaching plant. 

In the single-stage oxygen pulping process, the delignification is carried out in slightly alkaline 

solutions (pH 7-9) of sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate or hydrogen carbonate (also in the 

18

presence of hydrogen peroxide) at 140-150 0 C and high oxygen pressures in the range of 20-40 bar. 

The pressure cooking is carried out at low consistency to maintain the temperature level. To avoid 

insufficient oxygen penetration into the wood very thin chips (< 1.5 mm) must be used. The pulps are 

generally obtained in high yields and good brightness, but the strength properties are usually not 

comparable to those of kraft pulps. Strength improvements can be obtained by sodium hydrogen 

carbonate pre-cooking, increasing the carbon dioxide content in the gas phase, and by addition of 

potassium iodide or other metal compounds as cellulose protectors (Fujii and Hannah 1978). 

In the alkaline–AQ-peroxide process, delignification is carried out in two stages with a refining step 

in between. The first stage is a high-yield soda-AQ cook down to kappa numbers of 50-60. The 

second delignification step is performed as a medium to high consistency (>10%) hydrogen peroxide 

bleaching (

commune (Ramaswami and Ramanathan 1989) 66 . Currently the time required after treatment is in 

the order of days and can be reduced with the identification of right strains and other treatment 

conditions. The treatment can be done either during transport or storage in the yard. 

4.2.7. Effect of process variables and conditions on pulping 

The end results of pulping, as measured by pulp yield and quality, are affected by the variables 

controlling the chemical as well as mechanical stages of the process. The physical and chemical 

characteristics of the fibrous material, its state of sub division, the composition of the pulping liquor, 

the amount of chemical applied, and the time and temperature of pulping are some of the variables 

affecting the chemical processing stage. An increase in temperature results in an increase in the rate of 

pulping and a decrease in pulping time for a given degree of delignification. Vroom (1957) 434 

developed the concept of ‘H factor’ – a means of expressing cooking time and temperature as a single 

variable. The penetration of the cooking liquor into the fibrous material is an important dependent 

variable. The mechanical stage is affected by the properties of the materials from the chemical stage 

and its subdivision, the slurry consistency, the temperature, the number of passes, and the design of 

the machine and its elements. 

Since small chips are more easily penetrated with the pulping chemical than large ones, the former are 

particularly favoured. It is recommended to use chips having a dimension of 20-30mm in the grain 

direction in full chemical pulping as against 10-13mm for semichemical pulping. Chips reduced 

laterally to matchstick dimensions by hammer or disk mills are used to some extent. 

4.2.8. Yields of various pulping processes 

A classification of pulping processes based on present- day terminology and showing the relations and 

overlappings with respect to yields is given below (McGovern 1962) 414 : 

Sl 

No. 

Process Yield (%) 

1 Mechanical (groundwood) : 90-95 

2 Chemigroundwood : 85-90 

3 Chemimechanical 

- Cold-soda, sodium sulphite, bisulphite : 85-95 

4 Semichemical 

- Neutral sulphite, bisulphite, kraft, soda : 65-85 

5 Coarse- fibre 

- steam, mild chemical : 70-90 

6 High yield chemical 

- kraft, sulphite : 50-65 

7 Chemical 

- sulphate, soda, sulphite, bisulphite 

: 40-50 

- pre-hydrolysis sulphate 

: 35-40 

20

4.3. Bleaching 

The object of bleaching is to render the pulp whiter without excessive degradation of the cellulose. 

Industrial bleaching of pulps first with hypochlorite and later with chlorine, partly in combination, and 

with an intermediate extraction step with alkali began at the end of the 19 th century. The development 

of pulp bleaching techniques in the 20 th century has led to a large number of bleaching chemicals 

(Appendix 6A) applied in numerous and highly specific processes (Appendix 6B, C, D & E) today. 

The principal aim of pulp bleaching is to increase brightness. The whiteness of pulps is generally 

determined by measuring the reflectance of nearly monochromatic light (457 microns) by a standard 

General Electric (GE) reflectance meter. A magnesium oxide plate of known reflectance is used as a 

standard. The brightness values are expressed as percentage of light reflected by the sample as 

compared with that reflected by a completely white surface. Unbleached pulps generally exhibit 

brightness values ranging from 25-65 GE units. The sulphite process usually gives the brightest 

unbleached pulps, whereas those produced by kraft, soda or semichemical processes can be quite 

dark. Groundwood pulps have brightness values in between 40 and 60 units. 

To produce white fibres from the brown or pale yellow pulps, treatment with a bleaching agent is 

required. The nature of the bleaching operation depends on several factors: the type of raw material 

used to make the pulp, the pulping process, the degree of whiteness desired, and the purpose for 

which the pulp is to be used. Bleaching carries further the fibre purification accomplished in the 

pulping process. As the light-absorbing chromophoric component in unbleached pulps are 

predominantly functional groups of degraded and altered residual lignin, bleaching can be performed 

either by converting and stabilizing chromophoric groups without loss of substance (ligninpreserving 

bleaching) or by removing the lignin (lignin- removing bleaching). The traces of lignin and 

other coloured substances (quinone like substances formed from the phenolic groups of lignin by 

various oxidative processes are known to absorb visible light) are removed or converted to colourless 

forms by bleaching. The extraneous constituents of wood also contribute to the colour of certain 

pulps, especially the groundwood pulps. Along with the removal of the residual lignin and other 

compounds, insufficiently delignified particles (shives, bark specks) are also partly removed. 

Therefore, bleaching can additionally be regarded as a purification process, which is used especially 

in the case of dissolving pulp production to obtain a pure pulp with high alpha-cellulose content. 

Bleaching without delignification to brightness values above 70 is difficult to achieve. High 

brightness is not, of course, the only important characteristic of bleached pulps. A good paper pulp 

must also have good strength and good papermaking properties, and it is important that these 

properties are not lost in the bleaching process. 

21

Pulp bleaching chemicals can be classified into oxidising agents (chlorine, sodium or calcium 

hypochlorite, chlorine dioxide, hydrogen or sodium peroxide, oxygen, etc.) and reducing agents 

(sodium or zinc hydrosulphite, sodium or zinc dithionite, sodium bisulphite, etc.) (Appendix 6A). 

Present bleaching systems permit consistencies up to 15-25 per cent. 

Industrial lignin-removing processes have improved multi-stage bleaching sequences adapted to the 

special pulp type and combining the different oxidising and reducing abilities of the bleaching 

chemicals. Degraded lignin and other reaction products are extracted during intermediate alkaline 

washing stages. Bleaching with peroxide, oxygen or dithionite requires additional chemicals for 

buffering (e.g. sodium silicate), sequestering (e.g. ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid – EDTA) or 

stabilizing (e.g. magnesium salts). 

4.3.1. Bleaching of chemical pulps 

The aim of bleaching chemical pulps is to remove the residual lignin after the cooking process to 

obtain so-called full- bleached pulps with brightness levels above 90 per cent or semi-bleached 

qualities with brightness values in the range of 60-70 per cent. 

4.3.1.1. Multi-stage bleaching systems 

In the early days of sulphite pulp manufacture, a single-stage treatment of pulp at low consistency, 

using calcium hypochlorite (chlorinated lime) satisfied most requirements. Multi-stage bleaching 

systems have evolved for difficult to bleach pulps like the kraft in which various sequences of 

chemical treatment are employed depending upon the type of unbleached pulp and special 

requirements. Lignin-removing bleaching is predominantly carried out today in multi-stage 

procedures with oxidative stages combining with normally at least one alkaline extraction step. The 

multi stage bleaching systems are designed in order to control the process and particularly in order to 

limit the damage to the cellulosic fibre, since paper made from over bleached pulp does not have full 

strength. Apart from the high degree of whiteness or brightness attained, the consumption of bleach 

was much less in multi-stage bleaching. 

During the normal first stage in a modern bleach plant, the unbleached pulp is chlorinated with 3–4 

per cent of gaseous chlorine by rapidly mixing it with the pulp at temperature of 21- 27 0 C. In the 

following stage, an alkaline extraction with dilute caustic soda dissolves the chlorinated compounds 

which are then washed out. The final stage consists of a treatment with a very alkaline hypochlorite to 

neutralise the solution, followed by a final wash. This sequence of bleaching is generally termed as C/ 

E/H (Chlorination–Extraction–Hypochlorite treatment). By the use of small amounts of chlorine 

22

dioxide in later bleaching stages, it is possible to achieve high degrees of purification and brightness 

without the degradation of cellulose. 

The main disadvantage of the process is the extensive degradation of cellulose fibres as well as 

introducing high pollutants in the effluent. Further, higher brightness beyond 80 per cent is practically 

impossible while using hypochlorite. Alternatively, the use of chlorine dioxide can considerably 

reduce the use of free chlorine and the chlorination stage which has the advantages of lowering the 

consumption of oxidising chemicals as also sodium hydroxide at the extraction stages, improved pulp 

properties such as more stable brightness, improved effluent properties such as lower colour, toxicity, 

acidity, salinity, organic chlorides, COD and mutagenicity. The foremost advantage of using chlorine 

dioxide bleaching is the benefit of attaining brightness levels in excess of 85 per cent with the 

associated less degradation of cellulosic fibres. Practically all over the world chlorine dioxide 

bleaching has been in use for the last four decades. 

Multi-stage bleaching involves a series of stages, each complete within itself and operating under 

conditions previously described. The procedure may vary from two stages to as many as ten, 

involving chlorination, alkali extraction, hypochlorite, chlorine dioxide, and peroxide stages. The 

symbols used to describe the sequences and the various sequences, in practice for the bleaching of 

pulps are given in Appendix 6C, D &E. Pulps of different brightness may be obtained by varying the 

amount of chemical added, sequence of stages, and number of stages. The sequence of operation of 

the various stages will depend on the type of unbleached pulp, the quality of the bleached pulp, the 

brightness desired, and the economics of the process. 

In most commercial processes chlorination is still the first bleaching step, and is also called the prebleaching 

stage. Chlorine converts the residual lignin in water- and alkali-soluble degradation 

products, and is therefore generally followed by an alkaline extraction step to remove those 

components. 

4.3.1.2. Substitution for chlorine 

As chlorination causes the largest number of environmental problems with the bleach plant effluents, 

many attempts have been made to replace chlorine or to reduce the amounts of chlorine used or the 

chlorinated products in the effluents. This can be accomplished by cooking the pulps down to low 

kappa numbers, thus reducing the chlorinated organic load in the effluents, or by replacing part of 

chlorinated lignin fragments. Replacing chlorine altogether by peroxide or oxygen bleaching enables 

processing of effluents with few problems with regard to environmental protection. 

23

Hypochlorite can be used in a single-stage bleaching or in the first stage of multi- stage bleaching, 

but is mostly applied after chlorination and extraction (C-E-H). As hypochlorite has a severe 

degrading effect on cellulose in the neutral pH range at very low kappa numbers it must always be 

applied under alkaline conditions. 

Pulp and paper industry is rated to be one of the highly polluting (in top 20s) industries. Use of 

chlorine can release organochlorines, including the carcinogenic dioxin that can enter the food chain. 

Most developing countries aim to achieve a total organochlorine (TOCL) level of 0.1 kg per tonne of 

paper produced. Hence, there is an increasing trend worldwide to reduce the use of both elemental 

chlorine and chemicals containing chlorine. Two bleaching processes, which are increasingly being 

adopted by the western countries are elemental chlorine free (ECF) bleaching and total chlorine 

free (TCF) bleaching. As a first step towards adopting more environmentally friendly methods, the 

ECF bleaching comprising the replacement of the more dangerous elemental chlorine with chlorine 

dioxide is considered and is gradually displacing chlorine in the first stage of multi-stage bleaching, 

whereas formerly it was used in the final stages. This development is the result of several advantages 

of chlorine dioxide such as higher brightness, improved strength properties, lower chemical 

consumption and substantial decrease in the BOD of the effluents. Chlorine dioxide bleaching is 

generally performed at low to medium consistency at pH values of 3-5, and at low temperatures in the 

first stage or at about 70 0 C in intermediate or final stages for 3-5 hrs. The use of hydrogen and 

sodium peroxide as the bleaching agents (especially for mechanical pulps) is a solution to introduce 

the TCF bleaching. 

Peroxides, apart from their application in bleaching mechanical pulps, are also established today in 

several industrial bleaching sequences for chemical pulps. They are mainly used in the latter stages in 

combination with chlorine dioxide yielding increased brightness values and stability. More recently 

the traditional sodium hydroxide extraction (E) is sometimes replaced by an alkaline peroxide stage (P 

or P/E) combining bleaching and extraction in one stage, and resulting in a brightness gain without an 

additional stage. By increasing the application of hydrogen peroxide, the amounts of chlorine 

bleaching chemicals are reduced resulting in decreased chlorine load of the effluents. Limitations are 

still the high price of peroxides and the necessary additives for stabilization. Peroxide bleaching is 

usually performed at medium-to-high consistency at 60-80 0 C for 2-4 hrs. 

4.3.1.2.1. Oxygen bleaching 

Oxygen bleaching (or oxygen delignification) is another eco-friendly bleaching process. As oxidation 

is the essential reaction in lignin-removing bleaching, it is quite reasonable to aim at using oxygen as 

the cheapest oxidising agent for bleaching. In principle, oxygen bleaching is a gas-phase process at 

24

pressures usually between 4 and 8 bar in alkaline medium, performed at high consistencies of 20-30 

per cent and temperatures of 90-140 0 C, depending on the alkali used. But as it is not a selective 

lignin- degrading chemical, pulps cannot be bleached to high brightness exclusively with oxygen 

without considerable attack on the polysaccharides, resulting in rather poor strength properties. Thus 

the common practice in mill-scale bleaching today is to remove about one–half of the residual lignin 

in unbleached pulps by oxygen, and to finish with conventional multi stage bleaching sequences such 

as C-(EO)-H-D, D-C-(EO)-D, O-C-D-E, O-C-E-D-E-D or O-D-E-D, etc. The conventional bleach 

plants employing sequences such as C-E-H-H will have to do only marginal changes in their industry 

to incorporate the D-C-(EO)-D process so that pulps of high brightness can be produced at 

considerably and relatively low cost. The Kamyr, Sund, Beloit Rauma, etc. have equipments for the 

needful modifications (Goel et al. 1989) 5 . More than 16 plants throughout the world are employing 

this process, the first having been founded in South Africa in 1970. The main practical advantage of 

oxygen bleaching is the fact that the effluents from the oxygen step can be processed within the 

normal kraft recovery system. In the context of increasing air and water pollution from the traditional 

bleaching systems, oxygen bleaching has proven its potential as the more environmentally friendly 

system. 

4.3.2. Colour reduction in the effluent 

Some of the technological changes as suggested by Mall et al. (1989) 52 , for reducing toxicity and 

colour of the effluents are: elimination or minimum use of sulphur containing pulping processes and 

chlorine containing bleaching processes; extended delignification; modification of bleaching 

sequences which includes elimination of caustic extraction stage which is the major contributor of 

colour; use of oxygen bleaching, chlorine dioxide bleaching; use of anthraquinone and lower sulphur 

high-yield pulping processes; total recycle concept, and reduction in bleached pulp brightness level. 

4.3.3. Bio-bleaching 

Microorganisms or enzymes can cause modification of the lignin in the pulp rendering it more 

accessible to the bleaching agents, thus the application of biotechnology in bleaching can reduce the 

consumption of bleaching chemicals which can further help to reduce the effluent pollution and 

associated toxicity problems. After the alkaline extraction stage, unbleached kraft hardwood pulps 

have been treated with xylanases of Escherichia coli clone to yield pulps which are bright and have a 

kappa number 54 per cent lower than the corresponding control samples (Jurasck et al. 1987) 493a . In 

addition, the viscosity of pulps was also higher compared to the control. Begasse CTMP and CMP 

pulps on treatment with a crude enzyme extract resulted in 2-6 unit improvement in brightness 

(Ramaswami and Ramanathan 1989) 66 . There is still scope to improve its performance by 

purification of the enzyme and identification of the optimal treatment conditions like temperature and 

25

pH. The use of bio-catalysts can accelerate the rate of reaction as well as can have control over the 

products formed and thus the formation of undesirable side products can be controlled. In fermenters 

where the enzyme cellulase has been used, it has been found that 50-90 per cent of the enzymes are 

free in the solution and can be directly reused again (Eriksson and Kirk 1985) 503 . 

4.4. Recovery of pulping chemicals 

The regeneration of black liquor to fresh white liquor is an integrated and economically necessary part 

of the pulping process, especially in the sulphate and the soda process. The importance of the 

recovery line within the process may be seen from the fact that more than 25 per cent of the 

investment capital for a new kraft mill is used for the chemical recovery (Harris 1974) 43 . The 

chemical recovery cycle covers four main aspects: recovery of pulping chemicals, reduction of waterpollution 

by burning the organic matter in the spent liquor, generation of process heat, and recovery of 

valuable by-products. The principal steps of the recovery line are: evaporation of the black liquor, 

incineration of the concentrated liquor, causticizing the furnace smelt, and regeneration of the lime. 

4.5. Paper Manufacture 

4.5.1. Stock preparation – Beating / Refining 

.The tendency of cellulose fibres to bond together when dried from a water suspension provides the 

essence of paper making technology. Paper manufacture is largely a mechanical operation, although 

the chemical and physicochemical aspects are all important in determining the final sheet properties. 

Unmodified cellulose fibres, as obtained from pulping and bleaching operations, are generally 

unsuited for paper making. These must first be refined; refining or beating operation is conducted 

mechanically in beaters or refiners. The entire operation is called stock preparation. Fibres are 

abraded and fibrillated by the knife-edges or bars in the beater or refiner. Mechanical squeezing and 

pounding of cellulose fibre permits water to penetrate its structure, causing swelling of the fibre and 

making it flexible. During refining or beating, the pulp fibres are separated, crushed, frayed, 

fibrillated, and cut. They imbibe water and swell, become more flexible and more pliable. Their 

capacity to bond with one another on drying is greatly enhanced, partly through modification of the 

fibre surfaces and partly because of the creation of new surface area. Papers made from lightly beaten 

stocks are typically of low density, soft and porous; whereas papers from highly beaten stocks are 

dense, hard and much stronger. With given pulps, final paper properties are largely controlled through 

the type and extent of refining action employed. 

26

4.5.2. Sizing 

Sizing has been described as the treatment given to paper to prevent aqueous solutions, such as ink, 

from soaking into it. A typical sizing solution consists of a rosin soap dispersion mixed with the stock 

in an amount of 1-5 per cent of fibre. Since there is no affinity between rosin soap and fibre, it is 

necessary to use a coupling agent, normally alum (aluminium sulphate). The acidity of alum 

precipitates the rosin dispersion, and the positively charged aluminium ions and aluminium hydroxide 

flocs (masses of finally suspended particles) attach the size firmly to the negatively charged fibre 

surface. 

Paper intended for writing or printing usually contains white pigments or fillers to increase 

brightness, opacity and surface smoothness, and to improve ink receptivity. Clay (aluminium silicate), 

often referred as kaolin or china clay, is commonly used. Another pigment used as filler is titanium 

dioxide, which being expensive, is often used in admixture with others. Calcium carbonate is also 

used as paper filler for printing and magazine stocks and for the filling of cigarette paper, to which it 

contributes good burning properties. Because of its reactivity with acid, calcium carbonate cannot be 

used in systems containing alum. Other fillers such as zinc oxide, zinc sulphide, hydrated silica, 

calcium sulphate, hydrated alumina, talc, barium sulphate and asbestos are also in use as fillers in 

paper coatings. The amount of filler used may vary from 1- 10 per cent of the fibre. 

The most common way to impart colour to paper is to add soluble dyes or coloured pigments to the 

paper stock. Other additives such as wet-strength agents (organic resins), deflocculating agents and 

deformers are also incorporated as needed in the stock. To increase the dry strength of paper, the 

materials most commonly used are starch, polyacrylamide resins, and natural gums such as locust 

bean gum and guar gum. 

4.5.3. Paper sheet formation by machines 

The term paper is traditionally applied to a matted or felted sheet of cellulose fibres, formed on a fine 

wire screen from a dilute water suspension, and bonded together as the wire removed and the sheet is 

dried. The word, paper, is derived from the name of the reedy plant papyrus, which grows abundantly 

along the Nile River in Egypt. 

The continuous paper machine converts a very dilute aqueous suspension of fibres and other 

ingredients into a dry sheet of paper at varying speeds. The fourdrinier machine is one of the two 

major sheet forming devices in widespread use. It consists in essence of a continuously moving wire 

belt or screen, to which the dilute pulp slurry is fed and from which the wet, formed sheet is removed 

27

continuously. The second major type of paper machine, the cylinder machine, differs from the 

fourdrinier only in the forming part. Here, in place of the moving wire, one or a series of rotary 

cylindrical filters are used. 

Many grades of paper receive some type of treatment after formation and drying in order to enhance 

certain desirable characteristics. Such operations carried out on the paper machine are called machine 

converting operations. Machine calendaring is one of the most common converting operations 

where the sheet is passed through the nips formed by a series of steel rolls, one held on top of the 

other. Surface or tub sizing is another common converting operation, particularly in the manufacture 

of writing papers. Machine coating is practised for book and magazine papers to improve their 

surface for better reproduction of printed images. A coating mix is applied to one or both surfaces of 

the dry sheets by any of several means. The coating is often clay, contained in a high- solids aqueous 

suspension, which includes suitable adhesives and other ingredients. The sheet must be redried after 

the coating applications. The finished paper is wound on a large roll at the paper machine. 

4.5.4. Paper properties 

Used in a wide variety of forms, paper and paperboard are characterised by a wide range of properties. 

Weight or substance per unit area, called basis weight, is a fundamental property of paper and 

paperboard products. The term ream weight commonly signifies the weight of a lot or batch of paper. 

The calliper (thickness) of paper or paperboard is measured by placing a single sheet under a study 

pressure of 0.5 to 0.6 bar between two circular and parallel plane surfaces, the smaller of which has an 

area of 1.6 cm 2 . The density or specific gravity of paper is calculated from the basis weight and 

calliper and may vary over wide limits. Most common papers are in the density range of 0.5- 0.7g/cc. 

The strength of paper is determined by the following factors in combination: the strength of individual 

fibres of the stock; the average length of the fibre; the inter-fibre bonding ability (which is enhanced 

by beating/refining action); and the structure and formation of the sheet. Resistance to rupture when 

subjected to various stresses is an important property in practically all grades of paper. Tensile 

strength is the greatest longitudinal stress a piece of paper can bear without tearing apart. According 

to end-use situations, the wet and dry tensile strengths need to be specified separately. The stress is 

expressed as force per unit width of a test specimen. Since, the weight of the paper and the width of 

the test specimen affect the force of rupture, a conventional method of comparing inherent paper 

strength is the breaking length, the length of a paper strip in meters that would be just selfsupporting. 

This value varies from 500 m for extremely soft and weak tissue to about 8,000 m for 

strong kraft bag paper, and to about 14,000 m for sheets of paper made under ideal conditions. One of 

the oldest and most widely used strength tests for paper and paperboard is the bursting test, or Mullen 

test. Bursting strength is defined as the hydrostatic pressure necessary to cause rupture in a circular 

28

area of a given diameter. Other strength tests for which standard methods exist are the tearing 

strength and folding endurance. Explanation of some general terms used in describing pulp strength 

properties is given in Appendix 1B. 

The most important optical properties of paper are brightness, colour, opacity and gloss. The term 

brightness has come to mean the degree to which white or near-white paper and paperboard reflect the 

light of the blue end of the spectrum. This reflectance is measured by an instrument that illuminates 

paper at an angle of incidence of 45 0 and a wavelength of 457 microns. Opacity is one of the most 

desired properties of printing and writing papers. Satisfactory performance of such paper requires that 

there be little or no ‘show-through’ of images from one side of the sheet to the other. Satisfactory 

opacity in printing papers requires that white mineral pigments be incorporated with the paper stock 

or applied as a coating. The terms gloss, glare, finish and smoothness are used in describing surface 

characteristics of paper. Gloss refers to surface lustre and connotes a generally pleasing aspect. 

Calendaring and coating are important paper-treating methods that affect gloss. Gloss of paper is 

determined by measuring per cent reflectance at a low angle of incidence, 15 0 (75 0 from the 

perpendicular). Glare refers for a more intense reflection and a more unpleasant effect. The broad 

term finish, refers to the general surface characteristics of the sheet. Smoothness refers to the absence 

of surface irregularities under either visual or use conditions. 

4.5.5. Paper products 

The products of the paper industry are extremely varied. New applications for paper involved 

converted products. For this, more complex converting operations take place subsequent to the paper 

machine operations and are called off-machine converting. Supercalendaring, embossing, coating, 

waxing, laminating, impregnating, saturating, corrugating and printing are but a few of the 

common operations. Papers, often coated, waxed, resin-impregnated, or combined with other foils and 

films, are used for food packaging. Speciality papers incorporate the use of glass and other mineral 

fibres. Polyethylene–coated paper is crease-resistant and is flexible at temperatures ranging from 20 to 

85 0 C, which is used for bags, carton, box and bag liners as well as for disposable diapers, bibs and 

bed sheets. A great variety of technical and industrial papers have been developed for use in the 

manufacture of disposable vacuum bags, engine gaskets, cap liners, wet-cell batteries, and many other 

special-purpose products. The applications of paper are limited only by man’s ingenuity. 

4.5.6. Paper grades 

There are several hundred grades of paper and paperboard, distinguished from one another by 

differences in their properties, in the raw materials from which they are made, or in the process by 

29

which they are manufactured. An extensive list of grades of paper is given by American Paper and 

Pulp Association (1951) 23 and Labarre (1952) 50 . 

The specific properties of the various grades of paper produced by varying many factors including 

type of pulp, degree of bleaching and purification, thickness of the wet web, degree of pressing in 

water removal, degree of pressing in drying and calendaring operations, and kind and quantity of 

chemical additives. A brief description of the various grades of paper is given in Appendix 9A. 

30

PART II. BAMBOO FOR PULP AND PAPER 

5. BAMBOOS : DISTRIBUTION, UTILIZATION, STORAGE AND 

ECONOMICS 

5.1. About bamboos 

Bamboo grows in India, Burma, Thailand, Indonesia, China, Japan, the Philippines, Australia, South 

Africa, South America and southern North America. It is a grass of several genera and species. 

Bamboo provides the highest biomass per unit area. There are two types of bamboos: sympodial or 

clump forming, as in Bambusa; monopodial or single clump distributed laterally, as in Melocanna. 

Bamboo grows as high as 40 m with diameter up to 30 cm. The growth rate is tremendous; in 1-2 

months of the first year full length is achieved (growth rate is about 15 to 120 cm per day in some 

species!) (Martin 1996) 107a and culm maturation through lignification takes place during the next two 

to three years. 

Bamboo clumps die off after flowering, which occurs from cycles varying between 50 and 60 years 

depending on the species. Estimates of total global revenue generated from bamboo and its products – 

including the value of bamboo used by traditional communities and employment generated by them – 

range between US $ 4.5 and 7.0 billion. 

5.2. Distribution of bamboos 

Sharma (1982) 121 describes the distribution of bamboos in countries like China, Japan, Korea, 

besides that of South and Southeast Asia. A total of 1250 species of bamboos from 75 genera are 

reported from these countries. Occurrence of more than 50 species of bamboos is reported from 

Vietnam (Anonymous 1971). Recently, Ohrnberger (1999) 114 has brought out information on 

bamboos of the world and their distribution. 

Gamble (1896) 

94 is one of the oldest records available on bamboos of India. 

Singh and Guha (1981) 429 reviewed the various bamboos occurring in India, including their pulping, 

bleaching, beating properties and the properties of paper made from these. The upgraded list of 

distribution of bamboos in India is provided by ICFRE (1991) 100 and Moulik (1997) 111 . A 

compendium of 128 species of bamboos from 18 genera occurring in India have been brought out by 

Seethalakshmi and Kumar (1998) 118 . The two most widely distributed genera in India are Bambusa 

and Dendrocalamus. 

31

5.3. History of pulp production from bamboos 

Bamboo, “the green gold of the forest”, around 10 million tonnes of which are produced annually in 

the world, is not expensive, long-fibered, easy to transport and therefore is an important raw material 

for the pulp and paper industry. Sumg (1967) 20 described the pulp characteristics and technology for 

the manufacture of bamboo paper in the 17th century China. Bourdillon (1899) 138 , and later Sindall 

(1909) 192 and Vincent (1911) 205 described the use of bamboo for pulp and paper. It was India that 

took the lead in using bamboo in mechanized paper production. In 1912, the Titaghur Paper Mill in 

India started utilizing bamboo as a raw material in a limited scale. In 1918, the India Paper and Pulp 

Company Limited., Naihat produced paper made completely from bamboo. The pulp industry 

accounts for about half of India’s bamboo consumption (mostly Dendrocalamus strictus and Bambusa 

bambos). India uses about 3 million tonnes of bamboo per year in pulp manufacture and China about 

1 million tonnes. China is set to increase the use of bamboo for paper pulp manufacture to a target of 

5 million tonnes per year. The use of bamboo for pulp is reported to have decreased in India due to 

lack of raw material (INBAR 1977) 158 . 

Pearson (1912) 186 and Raitt (1912) 231 provided the history of work carried out at the Forest Research 

Institute, Dehra Dun, India which pioneered and laid a strong foundation for utilizing bamboo for pulp 

and paper. The general conditions necessary for establishment of a paper mill, manufacturing cost, 

etc. were provided by them. Bhargava and Singh (1941 137 and 1942) 26 established the suitability of 

bamboo as a raw material in the kraft process which was a major milestone in the pulp industry in 

India. Since then, many periodic reviews of the work carried out at the Forest Research Institute, 

Dehra Dun, India have appeared (Bhargava 1946 136 ; Singh and Mukherjea 1965 79 ; Tewari 1993) 124 . 

Tissot (1970) 198 reviewed the status of bamboo as a raw material in the Indian paper industry and the 

problems encountered in producing pulp and paper from bamboo (mainly Dendrocalamus strictus). In 

comparison to wood, bamboo can be pulped by the kraft and 2-stage alkali processes with less 

chemical and power (Stevens 1958 80 ; INBAR 1977) 158 . Only minor differences are found between 

pulps of 21 Indian bamboo species. The bamboo fibres are shorter than that of conifers but longer 

than that of hardwoods and narrower than that of wood fibres used in paper making. 

An yield of 8 tonnes per ha per year of dry matter (4.0 tonnes of cellulose) was reported (Anonymous, 

1955) from the Congo grown small bamboo, Oxytenanthera abyssinica. Hodge (1957) 99 described 

the economic future of bamboos in America. The reported annual yield per ha of bamboo cellulosic 

material was six times greater than that of southern pine. Belvin (1957) 25 reported the potential of 

32

amboo plantations in the USA. Istas (1958) 44 reported that the short, fine and stiff fibred dwarf 

bamboos of Belgian Congo (Sasa paniculata, S. variabilis, Arundinaria nitida and A. simonii) were 

unsuitable for pulping whereas the larger species, Bambusa vulgaris (with average fibre length around 

2.7 mm) from Congo gave promising results. Istas and Raekelboom (1962) 160 reported an yield of 50 

tonnes per ha of Bambusa vulgaris from Congo which also provided best paper making pulps. They 

suggested a cutting cycle of 2 years. Mooney (1959) 110 reported an yield of 5 tonnes air-dry culms 

per acre (12.5 tonnes/ ha) with a 4-year cutting cycle for Oxytenanthera abyssinica. Breitenbach 

(1961) described the status of bamboo as a source of cellulose in Ethiopia. An area of about 1 million 

ha was reported to be under the bamboo species, Oxytenanthera abyssinica. An area of 10,000 ha of 

bamboo plantation, managed on a 5-year coppice rotation, would keep a pulp mill supplied 

permanently with raw material. FPRDI (1962) 148 discussed the merits of bamboo as a raw material 

for pulp and paper making and outlined the commercial possibilities of certain economically and 

technically suitable Philippine species such as Gigantochloa levis, G. aspera, Schizostachyum 

lumampao, Bambusa blumeana, Bambusa vulgaris and B. vulgaris var. striata. Ono (1962) 12 

reported the results of a survey of bamboo forests in Indonesia and Burma (Myanmer) and discussed 

the scientific techniques of bamboo pulping industry. 

It was reported by Matsui (1963) 178 that about 70 per cent of the forest undergrowth in Japan was 

composed of Sasa bamboos. The larger species, Sasa kurilensis, was reported to provide an yield of 

50-60 tonnes per ha when clear cut. Nelson (1966) 61 reported that Sinarundinaria murielae, three 

Phyllostachys spp., two Arundinaria spp. and Oxytenanthera abyssinica were promising species for 

planting in the southeast and the Pacific coast of the USA. The prospects of bamboo for pulp and 

paper and board making in India were reported by Guha (1961a 96 & b) 395 . Factors which limit the 

actual selection of raw material for large scale paper manufacture were enumerated by him. 

Chandrasekharan (1968) 476 reported that bamboo only was used commercially in India for dissolving 

grade pulp. 

McGrovern (1967) 180 compared bamboo with southern hardwoods and southern pines in the USA 

with regard to yield (in India and Japan), density, chemical composition, fibre dimensions, conditions 

for kraft pulping and bleaching and pulp properties. Razzaque et al. (1981) 233 suggested a 12 month 

cutting cycle for bamboos for pulping. Adkoli (1992) 131 made an assessment of the availability of 

bamboo for the production of pulp and paper in India. Availability of wastelands for bamboo 

plantations, investments and efforts needed to raise such plantations were also discussed by him.. The 

three main species of bamboos, Dendrocalamus strictus, Bambusa arundinacea (B. bambos) and 

Melocanna baccifera are reported to constitute 83 per cent of the total growing stock. Nomura 

(1999) 183 described the role of bamboo in pulping in Myanmar. 

33

El Bassam and Jakob (1996) 146 reported that generally bamboos produced about 7 tonnes dry 

matter/ha per year. Cellulose content of more than 40 per cent emphasizes the suitability of bamboo as 

a raw material for pulp and paper production. The pulp yield from bamboos varies from 40-50 per 

cent. 

Even though China is number one in bamboo production in the world, information on the utilization 

of bamboo for pulping in China is scanty. There was a mass movement in China during 1958 for 

setting up small paper mills in order to solve the problem of shortage of paper and board in the 

country. As many as 4200 small plants exist in China, out of which 4000 mills produce less than 

10,000 tonnes per annum (Rao 1989) 17 . The total bamboo and reed pulp production in China recorded 

in 1986 was 820,000 tonnes, which forms 9.2 per cent of the total pulp production in the country. 

Tang (1999) 21 describes the current situation and future developments on the utilization of bamboos 

for pulp and paper in China. 

5.4. Decay while storage and control measures 

Bamboo for pulp and paper manufacture is usually stored outdoors for up to a year. Because of lack of 

any toxic constituents, bamboo forms a ready food source for a variety of organisms. The presence of 

large amounts of starch makes bamboo highly susceptible to attack by staining fungi and powder–post 

beetles (Beeson 1941 541 ; Gardner 1945 546 ; Mathew and Nair 1990) 158 . It was found that the lignin 

content of bamboo chips subjected to fungal attack did not vary appreciably from that of healthy 

bamboo. The bleached pulp from decayed bamboo was more yellower. 

Strength properties of pulp from decayed chips were appreciably reduced and this was due to the 

perforations or bore holes and erosion marks in the cell-walls, as observed by anatomical studies of 

the fibres from healthy and fungal attacked bamboos (Guha et al. 1958) 547 . Decay, mainly attributable 

to white-rotters, results in loss of wood substance and pulp yield, reduced pulp strength and increased 

consumption of bleaching chemicals because of the high content of residual lignin in the pulp. 

Bamboo attacked by brown-rot fungi was unsuitable for pulping, as the pulp yield was very low 

compared to healthy bamboo and the permanganate number was so high that the pulp was 

unbleachable. Fungal attack increases pulping costs, owing to increased alkali demands (because of 

acidic nature of fungi) and higher bleach consumption (Singh 1977) 566 . 

Sheets made from decayed and stained bamboo pulp from Bambusa tulda were found to have low 

strength. There was no appreciable difference in the yield of unbleached pulp from healthy bamboo 

and bamboo attacked by stain fungi, but the yield of unbleached pulp from bamboo attacked by decay 

fungi was low. The strength properties of pulp from bamboo attacked by decay fungi were lower than 

34

those made from bamboo attacked by stain fungi; which in turn were slightly lower than those made 

from healthy bamboo (Guha et al. 1958 547 ; Guha 1960 152 ; Bakshi et al. 1960) 539 . It is not advisable 

to store bamboos for long periods in warm and humid areas or under conditions favourable for decay. 

However, if bamboos have to be stored for long periods, storage should be under water or with 

suitable prophylactic treatment (which should not interfere with pulping) to prevent decay. 

Different studies have been reported on flowered bamboo (Bhargava 1945 136 ; Bakshi et al. 1968 540 ; 

Kala 1973 221 ; Dhoundiyal et al. 1973) 144 . Flowered bamboo culms are more resistant to beetle 

attack, may be due to starch depletion. Flowered bamboo, if in sound condition, is equally good for 

pulping and bleaching. 

When Bambusa polymorpha and Cephalostachyum pergracile were stored for 12 months in piles in 

the open or submerged in a natural pond, deterioration through stain and rot fungi was severe in the 

piles kept in the open but negligible in the bamboo kept under water. Neither duration nor method of 

storage had a great effect on chemical composition and sulphate pulp yields, but some strength 

properties of the pulp decreased about equally in both methods during storage. Brightness and 

response to bleaching were better in pulp from water-stored bamboo; this was also confirmed in a 

limited bleaching trial on mechanical pulp from B. polymorpha (Mai-Aung et al. 1969) 557 . 

Purushotham (1970) 561 suggested measures for protection of bamboo against fungal and insect attack 

at felling and stacking sites. Prophylactic treatment of the raw material while storing outdoors reduced 

the wood substance loss by 28-30 per cent and pulp yield loss by about 30 per cent (Guha and 

Chandra 1979) 542 . Kumar et al. (1980) 555 reviewed the work done on storage losses and the adverse 

effect of inadequate protection on strength of paper sheets, bleach consumption and brightness and 

loss in digester capacity utilization. Possible ways of using effective chemicals for overcoming these 

problems were also described. 

For long-term storage of bamboos in the open, it is recommended that the stacks are put-up on 

specially prepared ground (above a 10 cm layer of boiler ash and powdered lime sludge containing 

about 2% BHC) to prevent termite attack. The stacks should be profusely treated during different 

stages of stack forming and may be covered with treated bamboo mats or thatched grass (Kumar et al. 

1994) 554 . Treatments must be done in such a way that chemical pollution of the environment is 

avoided. Stacking methods and treatments depend on the incidences of both fungal and insect attack. 

For reed bamboos, vertical stacking results in a small gain in pulp yield over horizontal stacking 

because the former suffers less fungal damage. Monthly treatment with borax – boric acid results in a 

substantial gain (Gnanaharan et al. 1982) 560 . A pest management strategy using minimal application 

of pesticide is recommended by Nair et al. (1983) 560 . 

35

Prophylactic treatment with a mixture of sodium pentachlorophenate (NaPCP), boric acid and borax 

effected a saving of nearly 60 per cent in terms of pulp yield, in green material over a storage period 

of one year. Treatments should be repeated after 4-6 months, immediately after the monsoons (Kumar 

et al. 1985) 553 . Storing of bamboo (Bambusa vulgaris) for relatively long periods (4 months) should 

be avoided. Air-drying facilitates processing without reducing pulp quality quality (Vivone and 

Gomide 1985) 474 . 

Maheshwari et al. (1988) 175 described the efficient management of bamboo storage for reducing the 

cost of paper production. They also described the aspects of optimum inventory of bamboo at 

different places of storage, proper selection of site for storage, layout of stacks in the yard in 

compliance with the insurance rules and easy approach for transport system, design of stacks, 

prevention of fire hazards, preservation of raw materials, etc. 

Singh et al. (1988) 237 described the problem of decay on storage and its effect on pulp properties. 

Fungal and borer attacks influence the pulp yield and cause appreciable decrease in strength properties 

of paper. Prophylactic treatment of bamboos with 2.5 per cent solution of boric acid, borax and 

sodium pentachlorophenate (1:1:0.5) can effect considerable savings in wood raw materials. 

Laboratory screening tests on fungicides/insecticides revealed several formulations suitable for field 

applications (Kumar and Dobriyal 1990) 552 . While advanced fungal attack produces unbleachable 

pulps, borer attack in epidemic stages reduces the entire stack to powder causing 20-40 per cent 

volumetric loss. Termites also attack bamboo stacks, which in the absence of adequate protection can 

suffer losses up to a level of one metre from the ground during one year of storage. Protected 

bamboos remain sound during storage (Kumar et al. 1990) 551 . 

Apart from the chemical methods of protecting bamboos, some traditional (non-chemical) methods of 

preservation are also in practice, which include felling bamboos during low sugar content season 

(August and December - as the sugar content will be higher in spring than in winter); felling bamboos 

at maturity when sugar content is low (as the sugar content varies with age); post–harvest 

transpiration of bamboo culms (by keeping culms upright against trees for few days; parenchyma cells 

in plants continue to live for some time even after felling and during this period the stored food 

materials are utilized and thus the sugar/starch content in bamboos is lowered), and storing under 

water for a period of 4-12 weeks (which helps to reduce the starch/sugar content by leaching) (Kumar 

et al. 1994) 554 . It is reported that bamboos harvested during summer are more rapidly deteriorated 

than those harvested in the rainy season (Liese 1980) 168a . Kirkpatrick and Simmonds (1958) 549 made 

an attempt to correlate the natural durability of bamboo with the time of harvesting based on the 

36

phases of the moon. But this aspect was never proved beyond doubt and hence remains as a 

controversial subject. 

5.5. Economics of bamboo plantation 

Because of the high quality of pulp that can be obtained from bamboo and because of its availability 

in large quantity at a reasonable price, bamboo was used extensively as raw material in paper 

industry. In 1950, about 225,000 tonnes of bamboo was used in this industry in India (FRI 1951). The 

increasingly important role played by bamboo in the development of Indian pulp and paper industry is 

illustrated by Podder (1959) 14 . From a consumption of 5,830 tonnes in 1924 in India, it rose to 

4,50,000 tonnes in 1959. According to the report of Government of India (GOI 1961), bamboo to the 

level of 70 per cent was used as raw material in pulp industry in 1958–‘59. In India, bamboo forests 

occupy about 10 million ha, roughly about 31 per cent of the total forest area of the country. Average 

yield of bamboo is 10-15 tonnes per ha per year. With a production of 3.23 million tonnes of bamboo 

a year, India is second only to China. 

The economics of industrial plantations of Bambusa bambos (Syn. B. bambos), one of the 

prime/dominant bamboo species in India was described by Bhat (1970) 86 . He determined the standing 

cost of production of raw material for pulping by raising B. bambos as an under-storey crop in the 

deciduous forests of India, taking into account the establishment and cultural costs. The average 

physiological life cycle of this bamboo is reported to be 42 years, of which 2 years are spent in 

nursery. The remaining 40 years can be fixed as the rotation for this species, and the regular cutting 

cycle begins at around 10 years from planting. Shanmughavel (1995) 190 discussed the and economic 

aspects (costs and returns from a 6-year-old plantation) of Bambusa bambos and suggested that this is 

an ideal species for commercial plantations. 

Kandelaki (1976) 103 described the investigations in Soviet Georgia on the technical and economic 

feasibility of utilizing home-grown bamboos as raw material in the pulp and paper industry. Selective 

harvesting of a high yielding plantation of Phyllostachys edulis of 3-year- old culms yielded 52.73 

tonnes per ha per year (as against 4.5 tonnes per ha per year for a fir plantation and 5.5 tonnes per ha 

per year for alder). The cost of 1 tonne of bamboo was calculated at 11.77 rubles against 44 rubles for 

conifer pulpwood grown in Georgia. The pay-back period for a P. edulis plantation was 7 years from 

establishment. 

Specific techniques of economic analyses, ie, benefit–cost analysis, marginal analysis, budgeting and 

market research, were suggested by McCormac (1985) 108 viz-a-viz specific bamboo resources and 

development objectives. Wu and Xu (1987) 240 described the world level economic benefit of paper 

37

making with bamboo(Singh 1989) 77 projected the estimated demand for paper and paperboard in 

India for 2000 and the requirement of bamboo. Xie et al. (1999) 242 developed a stand model of pure 

and mixed plantation of Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys pubescens) for pulp. A model for calculating 

new culm yield of pure Moso bamboo stands was established based on the non-linear relationship 

between culm yield, and bamboo stand density and culm age components. The best high yield 

structure for pure Moso stands will have a stand density of 3000 culms per ha and will produce a culm 

yield of 31.1 tonnes per ha every two years. In mixed Moso and broad leaved tree stands, the most 

important structural factor influencing productivity was the bamboo and tree density ratio, and the 

second most important factor was the bamboo standing density. A bamboo standing density of 2100 

culms per ha mixed stand will produce 22.8 tonnes per ha of culms every two years. Yang et al. 

(1999) 129 determined the productivity of Moso bamboo stands by habitat and management, with 

significant differences found between different management regimes, site qualities or status of the 

original bamboo stand. Yuan et al. (1999) 130 suggested a 3-use management system (bamboo shoots, 

young bamboo for pulping and mature bamboo for wood purpose) for Moso bamboos in China. The 

new management system was more successful than the usual management for 2-uses (shoot and 

wood). Detailed data on comparative yield and their economics were provided by them. 

38

6. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION 

Information on the chemical composition of bamboo is important as far as its utilization for pulping 

is concerned. Holocellulose (also called hemicelluloses) is the main component contributing to the 

strength of paper made from bamboo. The high cellulose content and a yield of 40-50 per cent pulp 

make bamboo an ideal raw material for manufacture of paper. From the angle of paper production, the 

average chemical composition of bamboo (on OD weight basis) is : 

Holocellulose 61 - 71% 

Lignin 20 - 30% 

Pentosans 16 - 21% 

Silica 0.5-4.0% 

Ash 1.0-9.0% 

The solubility in different solvents are : 

Cold water 1.6- 4.6% 

Hot water 3.1- 7.0% 

Alcohol-benzene 0.3- 7.8% 

1% NaOH 15 - 39% 

Apart from the high cellulose content, the other factors like high lignin, pentosans and silica contents 

as well as higher solubilities are not in favour of ideal pulping conditions. But, since it contains higher 

cellulose content, bamboo is a preferred raw material for pulping. 

Bhargava (1945) 136 provided data on the proximate chemical analysis of 10 bamboo species. In 

Dendrocalamus strictus, it was found that the proximate chemical composition varied with locality 

and also due to flowering. 

Bamboo pulps from Ochlandra abyssinica and Oxytenanthera abyssinica have high alpha-cellulose 

content (Monteiro 1949 306 ; Seabra 1954) 189 . Numerous reports are available on the chemical 

composition of different species of bamboos grown in different countries [for example, Istas and 

Hontoy (1952) 219 and Istas et al. (1956) 159 on the Belgian Congo species Sasa japonica, S. kurilensis, 

Bambusa hoffii, B. vulgaris, Gigantochloa aspera and Ochlandra travancorica; Monsalud and 

Tamolang (1962) 8 on some Philippine species; Tono (1963) 261 on some Japanese bamboos; Nair 

(1970) 9 , Maheshwari et al. (1976) 171, 227 , Azzini (1976) 366 , Bhola (1976) 218 , Kandelaki (1977) 103 , 

Guha et al. (1980) 452 , Karim et al. (1994) 407 on the Indian species Dendrocalamus strictus, 

Bambusa bambos, Oxytenanthera monostigma, Bambusa vulgaris, Bambusa tulda, Phyllostachys spp. 

and Melocanna baccifera; Ku (1971) 165 on Taiwan bamboos including Bambusa beecheyana Munro. 

39

var. pubescens; Razzaque et al. (1981) 233 on the Bangladesh bamboo species Melocanna baccifera, 

Oxytenanthera nigrociliata, Dendrocalamus longispathus, Bambusa tulda and Neohouzeaua dullooa; 

Xia (1989) 241 on eight Chinese species]. Proximate chemical composition of the two most important 

Indian bamboos, viz., Dendrocalamus strictus and Bambusa bambos is given in Appendix 3A. No 

appreciable change in the chemical composition of 3- to 36-month-old Bangladesh bamboos was 

observed indicating that the bamboo probably attains maturity within its first year of growth 

(Razzaque et al. 1981) 233 . Sekyere (1994) 234 reported that Bambusa vulgaris from Ghana had a 

cellulose content of 61.2 per cent and lignin content of 26.8 per cent indicating its suitability for 

making good quality pulps. Appendix 3A gives the chemical composition of the two most important 

Indian bamboo species, Dendrocalamus strictus and Bambusa bambos. 

The within culm variation of the chemical constituents is also reported to be significant. In 

Bambusa vulgaris, the basal portion is reported to have the lowest holocellulose content (70.8 %) and 

highest 1% NaOH solubility (26.5%) as compared to the middle and top portions. Significant 

interactions were reported between the chemical composition and fibre morphology (Jamaludin and 

Abdul Jalil 1994 330 ; Jamaludin et al. 1994) 331 . Regardless of age and culm height, the high cellulose 

and low ash content together with fibre characteristics of Gigantochloa scortechinii from Malaysia 

were found beneficial to pulping process (Jamaludin et al. 1993 161 ; Abdul Latif Mohamod et al. 

1994) 324 . Variations in chemical constituents due to age (1- to 6-year-old culms of Bambusa bambos) 

were reported by Shanmughavel (1995) 190 . 

The silica in bamboo causes problems in pulping. Tsuji and Ono (1966) 433 reported the ash and silica 

contents of 14 tropical bamboo species used for pulping. The Philippine species Gigantochloa levis, 

G. aspera, Schizostachyum lumampao, Bambusa blumeana, B. vulgaris and B. vulgaris var. striata 

are reported to have a higher range of ash and silica content. A positive correlation between the silica 

content and the specific gravity and cell wall thickness in Bambusa blumeana was reported by Espiloy 

(1982) 280 . Sadwarte and Prasad (1978) 562 described the process of removing silica from bamboo 

prior to pulping. A wax of Bambusa bambos culms causing problems in chipping and pulping can be 

reduced by treatment with steam for two hours. The wax was chemically analysed and found to be of 

industrially low quality (Beri et al. 1967) 135 . 

The chemical analysis of 3-year-old culms of Dendrocalamus strictus revealed that the material 

contains 64.8 per cent holocellulose. The main structural component of the bamboo hemicelluloses 

was reported to be 4-O-methyl glucuronoarabino xylan (Karnik 1960 296 ; Karnik et al. 1963) 297 . The 

hemicellulose of Dendrocalamus strictus is reported to be composed of glucuronoxylan having a 

molecular weight of 6600 containing D-xylose and D-glucuronic acid units in the molar proportion of 

approximately 9:1 (Ingle and Bose 1969) 293 . The hemicellulose contains 78.0per cent xylose, 9.4 per 

40

cent arabinose and 12.8 per cent uronic acid; the acetyl and methoxyl value being nil (Negi 1969 309 ; 

1970) 310 . The hemicellulose of Bambusa bambos contains 78.8 per cent xylose, 11.6 per cent 

arabinose and 1.8 per cent galactose (Guha and Pant 1967) 394 . Xylose (82-92% yield) was the main 

constituent of the hemicelluloses isolated from Dendrocalamus strictus, D. hamiltonii and Melocanna 

baccifera (Dhawan and Singh 1982) 278 . Glucose, arabinose, rhamnose and glucuronic acid were also 

found to be present in small amounts in all the hemicellulose isolates. The yield of sugars was highest 

in the case of D. strictus whereas pentosans and methoxyl content were the highest in the case of D. 

hamiltoni, Melocanna baccifera had the lowest yield of sugars, pentosans and methoxyl content. 

As pentosans constitute more than 85 per cent of the hemicelluloses, their effect on pulping 

characteristics is important. The pentosans are reported to be retained in the cellulose pulps even after 

a final stage of cold-alkali purification with 17.5per cent NaOH. This suggests that there are ‘alkali 

resistant’ pentosans in close association with the cellulose proper (Negi 1970) 310 . A probable inter- 

relation between cellulose, lignin and hemicellulose in Dendrocalamus strictus is described by 

Mukherjea and Guha (1971) 307 in their studies on the methods for isolating cellulose from lignin and 

pentosan components. Once the pentosans are rendered non-resistant, treatment with alkali before 

chlorite treatment produces pulps with a high content of resistant pentosans whereas chlorite treatment 

alone makes the pentosans non-resistant to alkali extraction (Guha and Negi 1972) 394 . Maximum 

amount of alkali resistant pentosans are retained in chlorite pulp and minimum in the sulphate pulp of 

Dendrocalamus strictus (Singh et al. 1974) 317 . Biyani et al. (1967) 378 obtained a pulp with low 

pentosan content from Bambusa bambos by nitric acid pulping. Prehydrolysis /sulphate process may 

be the only effective means of removing the pentosans from bamboo chips (at a cost of considerable 

loss of alpha-cellulose) and thus enabling a dissolving-grade pulp to be obtained (Bawagan 1968) 268 . 

The pentosans present and ash content of the various bamboos used in India for making rayon pulp 

were reported by Saboo (1992) 482 . 

Bamboo lignin is a typical grass lignin composed of mixed dehydrogenation polymers of coniferyl, 

sinapyl and p-coumaryl alcohols. The unique feature of bamboo lignin is that it contains 5-10 per cent 

ester of p-coumaric acid (Higuchi 1958 288 , Higuchi and Kaivamura 1966) 289 . Lignin of D. strictus is 

found to be composed of two fractions, one carrying high methoxyl value (19%) and the other having 

low value (2%) (Pant et al. 1975) 311 . The former is easily extractable under mild conditions whereas 

the latter requires drastic conditions. Aldol type side chain (R-CH-(OH)-CH2-CHO) and presence of 

bivanillyl structure with alpha-alpha linkage and 1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxy)-3 hydroxy propane-1-one 

have been suggested for the bamboo lignin. Vanillic acid, vanillin and syringaldehyde are present as 

terminal moieties and are linked through beta-position of side chain of the main precursors via 

carboxylic acid group (Bist et al. 1974 275 ; 1975 276 ; Sabharwal et al. 1962) 313 . 

41

The difference in the lignin content of different species of Indian bamboos is reported to be negligible 

(24 ± 3%). The structure of bamboo lignin is more similar to hardwood lignin than that to conifer 

lignin. There is a correlation between the number of C 9 units of different bamboos and breaking 

length of the beaten pulps. Prehydrolysis of Dendrocalamus strictus will lead to decreased pulp yield 

at higher pH and at more cooking time. The lignin yield from prehydrolysate decreases as the pH goes 

towards acidic side. The methoxyl content in isolated lignin decreases with increase of lignin yield, 

while total hydroxyl increases. The acidic and aqueous lignins are less condensed than soda lignin. 

The chemical characteristics of milled lignin from Ochlandra travancorica and the C, H, O and S 

content of Dendrocalamus giganteus lignin and their functional groups (methoxyl, hydroxyl and 

carboxylic) and correlations between these and on the oxidation products of the lignins are also 

reported (Kapoor and Guha 1984 295 ; Vijan and Madan 1996) 263 . Clear differences in the structure 

exist between lignin isolates from sound and flowered bamboos. 

The extractive contents of Dendrocalamus strictus and their effect on sizing were described by Rao 

et al. (1983) 469 . The removal of extractive components will improve sizing substantially. The 

presence of oleic acid and its derivatives in the extractives are attributed to be responsible for this 

effect. Glucose and starch contents were higher in samples from middle and upper portions of the 

culms of 1-, 3- and 5-year-old Bambusa vulgaris vulgaris (Azzini et al. 1987) 266 . Fengal and Shao 

(1984) 244 reported 2.6 per cent extractives, 25.5 per cent lignin, 15.3 per cent alpha-cellulose and 

24.3 per cent polyoses in Phyllostachys makinioi. The main polyoses are arabinoxylan with xylose : 

arabinose ratio of about 17 : 1. Ultra structure revealed through electron micrographic studies 

shows a lamellar deposition of lignin and polyoses within the secondary walls. Lignin is soluble by 

parts in alkaline as well as in acidic reagents. Sodium hydroxide solution removes cell wall substance 

mainly from secondary walls, whereas trifluoro acetic acid removes substance from compound middle 

lamellae. Wang and Lirn (1984) 438 , in their study on the high yield pulping of bamboo waste 

(shavings and nodes of Dendrocalamus latiflorus, Phyllostachys edulis and Phyllostachys makinoi) 

using neutral sulphite- anthraquinone process reported that the ash and extractive contents of bamboo 

wastes were higher than those of wood. Lignin content was lower than that of softwood, but similar to 

that of hardwood. The lignin content of Phyllostachys edulis was the highest. 

The nodal and internodal portions of bamboo culm differ in their chemical constituents. Internodal 

portion of Dendrocalamus strictus has higher holocellulose and lower lignin, pentosans, extractives 

and ash compared to its nodal portion (Maheshwari and Satpathy 1988) 175 . The contents of chemical 

components in Gigantochloa scortechinii increase with age and height level of the culms, but the 

correlation is insignificant (Abdul Latif et al. 1994) 324 . Regardless of age and culm height, the high 

cellulose content of this species makes it suitable for pulping. 

42

7. FIBRE MORPHOLOGY 

Fibre length of bamboo is generally greater than that of hardwoods. The fibre morphology of 12 

bamboo species from India showed a mean fibre length ranging from 1.01 to 4.03 mm (Bhargava 

1945) 136 . Various studies have been reported on the fibre dimensions of different bamboo species 

from different countries and their suitability for commercial pulping [Seabra (1954) 189 on some 

African bamboos; Istas et al. (1956) 159 ten species from Belgian Congo; Du (1957) 386 on seven 

Taiwan species including Sinocalamus latiflorus having the longest fibre; Ku (1971) 165 on the 

Thailand species Bambusa beecheyana Munro var. pubescens; and on the Indian species Bambusa 

vulgaris, Dendrocalamus strictus, Oxytenanthera monostigma and Melocanna baccifera by 

Maheshwari et al. (1976a) 227 , Azzini (1976) 366 and Guha et al. (1980) 457 ]. Varshney (1965) 262 

reported the effect of anatomical characteristics of bamboos on pulping. The quality of the cook, 

especially the mechanical properties of the pulp are determined by the degree of impregnation of 

cooking chemicals in the chips, the diffusion rate during cooking and the amount of screen rejects and 

by the residual parenchyma and ray cells. Pulps made from different species of bamboo show less 

variation than expected (Grant 1962) 37 . The fibre content was found to increase with culm height and 

decrease from outer to inner part of the culms in Phyllostachys reticulata of age 1-6 years (Kitamura 

1962) 332 . But, the variation in parenchyma proportion in this species due to age was not significant. 

The parenchyma proportion in Phyllostachys reticulata was very close to that of Dendrocalamus 

strictus Singh et al. (1971) 354 . In general, it is therefore probable that parenchyma proportion in 

different species varies within narrow limits only; fibre dimensions, however, vary widely in different 

species (Monsalud 1965) 338 . 

Chu and Yao (1964) 326 provided details on the fibre length, cell wall thickness and percentage of 

fibres and other elements of 33 Chinese bamboo species and classified these bamboos on the basis of 

fibre characteristics for pulp and paper. Out of these, 21 species were found promising for yielding 

high quality pulp. Later, Xia (1989) 241 reported the fibre length of eight Chinese bamboo species. 

The fibre dimensions, flexibility coefficients, Runkel and slenderness ratios of four Thai bamboo 

species were described by Premrasmi and Aranyaputi (1965) 63 . Monsalud (1965) 338 described the 

fibre characteristics of 13 Philippine bamboo species. Unlike woods, fibre dimensions or their derived 

values are not useful in classifying bamboos. The fibre dimensions of some Philippine bamboos for 

long fibred paper pulps were described by Tamolang (1962) 355 , Monsalud and Tamolang (1962) 8 

and Zamuco (1972) 359 . The morphological as well as chemical composition and suitability for 

pulping of various bamboo species as well as pulping processes were reviewed by Ukil (1961) 203 and 

Witkoski (1964) 210 . 

43

Within a culm, the proportion of different cell types shows a regular pattern from interior towards 

periphery within the wall as well as from base to top (Liese and Mende 1969). But, between species 

Dendrocalamus strictus and Bambusa tulda, the variation in parenchyma proportion is found not 

significant. With increasing height, the amount of parenchyma cells decreases with corresponding 

increase in proportion of fibres. 

In brief, a number of domestic bamboos tested for paper pulp have shown a wide variation in the 

mean fibre and tissue characteristics as given below: 

Fibre length 152 0– 4030 µ m 

Fibre diameter 13.14–19.94 µ m 

Lumen diameter 2.18 – 9.94 µ m 

Cell wall thickness 3.71 – 6.16 µ m 

Parenchyma proportion 17.1 – 26.9% 

Singh et al. (1976 353 ; 1988) 237 described the fibre morphology of 12 Indian bamboo species 

(Appendix 3. B). No relationship could be found between fibre characteristics and strength properties 

of paper, since wide variations existed within species. Because of the variation within species, pulp 

sheet properties of bamboos could not be predicted from fibre dimensions or chemical composition. 

Fibre characteristics cannot be used as a criteria for classifying the bamboos for paper and pulp 

production. Fibre length is generally considered to be an important factor for tearing strength while 

the l/d ratio is associated with breaking length and burst factor of the wood pulp (Dinwoodie 1965). 

The average l/d ratio for bamboo is around 180 (Podder 1979) 15 . 

Studies on fractionated pulp of Dendrocalamus strictus have shown a highly negative correlation 

between parenchyma proportion and pulp sheet properties. However, along with fibre length, 

parenchyma proportion accounted for 94 per cent of the variation in the strength properties of the 

sheets (Singh et al. 1976) 534 . Within clump, variation of fibre length was reported for 12 Indian 

bamboo species (Pattanath 1972) 346 . While the fibre length in the lower portion of the culm is more 

than that at higher levels, the pattern of variation differs from species to species. Fibre length also 

does not show any consistent relationship with internode length. Variations have also been reported 

from outside to inside in bamboo walls (Liese and Grosser 1972) 336 . Thus, bamboo should be 

regarded as a physically heterogeneous mixture of fibres. A positive correlation between cell wall 

thickness, silica content, and specific gravity is reported in Philippine bamboos (Espiloy 1982) 280 . 

44

Based on the values of Runkel ratio obtained, Wai and Murakami (1984) 356 categorized different 

species from Myanmmar into groups A, B and C. Group A contains species having a substantial 

number of thin walled fibres (eg, Melocanna baccifera), group B contains a small number of thin 

walled fibres (eg. Bambusa polymorpha and Dendrocalamus membranaceus) and group C consists 

almost entirely of thick walled fibres with very small lumen (eg. Cephalostachyum pergracile, 

Bambusa tulda and Dendrocalamus longispathus). This grouping was very useful in evaluating and 

explaining the sheet properties. The influence of fibre morphology on sheet properties was much 

greater in the fines-free pulp sheets than in the whole pulp sheets. The sheets of group A pulp were 

denser and had significantly better strength properties, except for tear index, than the sheets of other 

pulp groups of the same beating levels. The small amount of thin-walled fibres contributed to the 

burst index and the folding endurance of the group B fines-free pulp sheets. 

Data on the variation in fibre length, diameter, cell wall thickness and Runkel ratio of five bamboo 

species from Bangaladesh (Melocanna baccifera, Oxytenanthera nigrociliata, Dendrocalamus 

longispathus, Bambusa tulda and Neohouzeaua dulooa) with age revealed no appreciable changes in 

fibre dimensions with increasing age (from 3 - 36 months), indicating that the species probably attain 

maturity within their first year of growth (Razzaque and Siddique 1970) 68 . The fibre dimensions 

(average fibre length, diameter and cell wall thickness) and values derived from these (Runkel ratio, 

flexibility coefficient and relative fibre length) of 13 Bangladesh bamboo species were reported by 

Siddique and Chowdhury (1982) 352 , out of which three species were found very much suitable for 

paper making. Studies on the effect of parenchyma cell content on the characteristics and properties of 

kraft pulp from Bambusa vulgaris with an optimum degree of delignification revealed that the 

presence of parenchyma cells will greatly reduce the pulp strength (Gomide et al. 1985) 248 . 

Significant within culm variations in fibre properties such as cell wall thickness, fibre length and 

slenderness ratio have been reported for Bambusa vulgaris (Jamaludin and Abdul Jalil 1991) 330 . The 

basal portion is reported to have the longest fibres (3.51 mm) and highest slenderness ratio (245.0) 

compared to the middle and top portions. Studies on the fibre morphology of 1to 3-year-old 

Gigantochloa scortechinii from Malaysia showed that the fibres were long to about 3.0-5.0 mm with 

thick cell wall of 7 microns. The high Runkel ratio and low flexibility coefficient of this species 

indicated its undesirability for paper making; however, its long fibres with high slenderness ratio and 

high holocellulose content make the species suitable for paper pulp production (Jamaludin et al. 

1993 161 ; Abdul Latif et al.1994 324 ; Abdul Latif and Mohamod Tamizi 1992). Within culm variation 

as well as variations due to age in the anatomical properties of Bambusa vulgaris, Bambusa blumeana 

and Gigantochloa scortechinii from Malaysia were reported by Abdul Latif and Mohamod Tamizi 

(1992). The fibre dimensions (except fibre wall thickness and Runkel and l /d ratios) increased with 

age. A fibre length of 2.65 mm with Runkel ratio of 1.03 reported for Bambusa vulgaris from China 

45

indicates its suitability for pulp and paper making (Sekyere 1994) 234 . The variations in fibre 

dimensions of Bambusa vulgaris from Malaysia based on a detailed study on 50 mature culms are 

also available (Jamaludin et al. 1994) 331 . 

The fibre properties of 22 Chinese bamboo species were described by Zhang (1995) 214 . Xia and 

Zeng (1996) 358 described the fibre length, fibre width, cell wall thickness and cavity diameter of 

Bambusa distegus. The fibre length and cell wall thickness increased with age, while cavity diameter 

decreased. 

The fibre length and percentage content of +50, +65, +100 and –100 mesh fibres in both bleached 

and unbleached fibres from Bambusa bambos increased with age (Shanmughavel and Francis 

1996) 350 .. This result indicates that the species attains maturity during the first year of growth, so that 

for pulping purpose a 1-year cutting cycle can be followed. The finding of Mazzei and Rediko 

(1967) 179 that 1-year- old culms of Bambusa vulgaris gave the best pulp, is also in support of the 

suggested 1-year cutting cycle. These confirm the conclusion of Siddique and Chowdhury (1982) 352 . 

A comparison between 10 Indian bamboo species from a natural stand and two species from 

plantations on fibre dimensions did not reveal any significant correlations between fibre length, 

diameter and wall thickness. There was only a minimal increase in fibre length with increasing age of 

plantation grown Bambusa bambos (Shanmughavel and Francis 1998) 351 . However, there was a 

significant difference in fibre length across the culms. 

46

8. TYPES OF PULP 

Investigations for utilizing bamboo for different types of pulps started in the early 1890s (Sindall 

1909 192 ; Vincent 1911 205 ; Pearson 1912 186 ; Raitt 1912 231 ; Bhargava and Singh 1942) 26,137 . 

Bambusa bambos and Dendrocalamus strictus were reported to be suitable for the production of 

rayon pulp (Karnik and Sen 1948) 480 . The preparation of dissolving pulp from bamboo was described 

by Jogleker and Donofrio (1951) 162 . The use of Phyllostachys bambusoides of not more than 15 years 

of age from Savannah as a raw material for the preparation of dissolving grade pulp by prehydrolysis 

and sulphate pulping was described by Nafziger et al. (1960) 417 . This species was also suggested for 

producing newsprint from chemical, semi-chemical and mechanical pulps. Dissolving pulp from 

Melocanna bambusoides was prepared by prehydrolysis sulphate process (Oye and Mizuno 

1970) 421 . From Ochlandra travancorica, viscose rayon grade pulp was prepared by prehydrolysis 

sulphate process (Bhat and Viramani 1961) 475 . Prehydrolysis cooking of bamboos at 160 – 165 0 C 

for 4 hours followed by sulphate cooking at 160 0 C for 2 hours with a total sodium hydroxide 20 per 

cent and sulphidity 20 per cent, were suggested for the preparation of dissolving grade pulp (Tsuji et 

al. 1965) 432 . With these prehydrolysis conditions, pentosans were less than 5 per cent. The average 

degree of polymerisation compared favourably with that of similar pulps from wood. In comparison 

with wood, bamboo pulp has a higher rate of depolymerisation during aging, low cold-alkali solubility 

but comparatively high hot-alkali solubility, and a similar degree of crystallinity, but a higher rate of 

acid hydrolysis and lower levelling of degree of polymerisation (Oye and Mizuno 1970) 421 . The 

chemical properties and filterabilities of viscose showed no great difference from those of wood. 

Bambusa bambos was found superior to Phyllostachys reticulata in polymerisation and yield. 

Bamboo dust (wastes) can also be used for rayon and paper grade pulps and the process is described 

by Gupta and Jain (1966) 477 . Improved sulphate pulping procedures for preparing dissolving grade 

pulp from Dendrocalamus strictus (in which nearly 25% of the total lignin is held in the lumen and 

between the primary and secondary walls of the fibres) are described by Pande (1966 523, 524 ; 

1967 525 ). The manufacture of dissolving pulp from the Chinese bamboos Sinocalamus latiflorus and 

Bambusa stenostachya was described by Chang and Kuo (1976) 382 . The role of bamboos in the 

industrial manufacture of rayon grade pulp as well as a general picture of the process of industrial 

manufacturing of dissolving grade pulp from bamboo was described by Saboo (1992) 482 . 

Nitric acid pulping of bamboo for making paper-grade pulp from Bambusa bambos yielded highest 

screened pulp (40.9%) as obtained by cooking with 10 per cent nitric acid at 80 0 C for 6 hours and 

extracting with 1 per cent sodium hydroxide at 120 0 C for 1 hour (Biyani et al. 1967) 378 . In view of 

the low pentosan content of the pulp, the process is promising. 

47

High-yield and good quality pulp, especially with regard to tearing strength suitable for paper making, 

can be produced from Bambusa vulgaris, B. vulgaris var. vittata and B. tuldoides, the most common 

bamboos found in Southern Brazil (Mazzei et al. 1967) 179 . One-year-old culms gave the best result. 

Indian bamboos were reported to be suitable for high-yield refiner mechanical pulping (Eberhardt 

1968) 362 . Escolano and Semana (1970) 147 reported the suitability of Bambusa vulgaris sulphate pulp 

for paper. On the basis of the quality of pulp, optimum conditions for producing kraft pulp from 

Oxytenanthera ritcheyi were described by Bhandari (1981) 445 . Similarly, the cooking conditions for 

producing bamboo + mixed hardwood pulps were also reported (Bhargava et al. 1985) 217 . 

48

9. PULPING 

Tissot (1970) 198 , on the basis of a study of four Indian mills, discussed the problem of making pulp 

and paper from bamboo. The cooking processes used (kraft, sulphite and neutral sulphite) and the 

bleaching and refining procedures followed were reviewed. He suggested solutions to overcome 

problems of blade wear due to the presence of silica. 

An account of investigations carried out on the pulping of bamboos at FRI, Dehra Dun, India, from 

1860 to 1944 was described by Bhargava (1945) 136 . Data on the semi-commercial pulping tests of 

Dendrocalamus strictus, D. hamiltonii, D. longispathus, Melocanna bambusoides, Bambusa bambos, 

B. polymorpha, B. tulda, Ochlandra travancorica, Oxytenanthera nigrociliata and Teinostachyum 

dulooa were provided in this report. Later, Singh and Mukherjea (1965) 79 summarised the results of 

50 years of work at the FRI, Dehra Dun, India, on the pulping of various indigenous materials, 

including bamboos. Guha and Pant (1972) 6 reviewed the work carried out at FRI, Dehra Dun since 

1964 on various indigenous materials for pulp, paper and board industry including bamboos, reeds, 

grasses and agricultural residues. Singh and Guha (1981) 194 reviewed the research carried out on 

pulping, bleaching and paper making from different bamboo species occurring in India. 

9.1. Mechanical pulping 

The mechanical pulping of bamboo was reported by Bhat and Viramani (1957) 273 and they showed 

that the newsprint prepared from the furnish of groundwood pulp and chemical pulp in the ratio 70:30 

was as strong as the then imported newsprint. 

9.1.1. Thermo-mechanical pulping 

Soda thermo-mechanical (STM) and soda sulphite thermo-mechanical (SSTM) pulp from bamboo 

(Dendrocalamus strictus) was prepared from pre-impregnated chips, using a 10 per cent solution of 

NaOH and a mixture of NaOH and sodium sulphite in the ratio of 4:1 separately, respectively. 

Impregnated chips were heated at 120 0 C steam temperature for 3 minutes (Singh et al. 1987) 318 . 

9.1.2. Chemi-mechanical pulping 

Mukherjea and Guha (1965) 416 described a newly developed chemi-mechanical high-yield process 

used at FRI, Dehra Dun, India for pulping non-wood forest products including bamboos. The resultant 

pulps are reported to be suitable for preparing newsprint, writing, printing and grease-proof papers. 

49

9.2. Chemical pulping 

Bamboo pulp has been used in India from the beginning of the last century for making a variety of 

papers (Anonymous 1915). It was the Raitt process that was employed in those days for the pulping 

of bamboo in India (Raitt 1912 231 , 1925 & 1931) 424 . Digesting methods defers according to the 

different pulp characteristics desired (Tutiya and Imai 1940 202 ; Kato 1955) 408, 409 . Dendrocalamus 

strictus, Bambusa bambos and reed bamboo are the preferred species that were subjected to pulping 

by various chemical processes (Ahamed and Karnik 1944) 265 . Addition of sodium aluminate as an 

auxiliary was found to increase the alpha-cellulose content of the pulp, but the ash content was 

increased. An important factor in bamboo pulping is to achieve good penetration of the cooking 

chemicals into the bamboo tissue. This difficulty is caused by the presence of an impenetrable 

epidermis and strong bundle sheaths as well as the limited area of conducting channels and complete 

absence of rays (Despande 1953) 143a . Severe mechanical crushing of the bamboo and chipping to 

short particles were suggested as the means of resolving this problem. Pressure impregnation cooking 

developed later improved the quality of pulps (Istas et al. 1956) 159 . 

Belvin (1957) 25 described the research efforts in bamboo pulping in South America. The process of 

making the “Joss” paper (ceremonial paper) from Bambusa stenostachya, B. oldhamii, 

Dendrocalamus latiflorus and Phyllostachys pubescens in China was described by Perdue et al. 

(1961) 363 . 

9.2.1. Alkaline pulping processes 

9.2.1.1. Soda pulping 

Gremler and McGovern (1960) 391 reviewed the history of cold-soda pulping, emphasizing the 

various continuous methods used. Pulping Bambusa polymorpha showed that short impregnation 

periods would result in completely defibrated pulp and high freeness. Good quality hand-made paper 

was produced from the cold- soda bamboo pulp (Rao et al. 1962) 364 . Later, Nicholas and Navarro 

(1964) 419 evaluated the cold-soda pulps from some Philippine bamboos. The characteristics of 

unbleached bamboo cold-soda pulp was described by Islam et al. (1989) 511 (Appendix 5.B). 

Sulphite process being the best and soda process the poorest for pulping bamboo, Devgan (1964) 425 

suggested the incorporation of 2 per cent elemental sulphur in the soda-cooking of Dendrocalamus 

strictus.. The kinetics of alkaline pulping of Dendrocalamus strictus was described by Singh and 

Guha (1975) 429 . Up to a yield level of 70 per cent there was a linear correlation between the lignin 

content and kappa number as well as between lignin- carbohydrate ratio and yield. Regression 

equations were also developed for these parameters. 

50

9.2.1.2. Kraft (sulphate) pulping 

A kraft cooking conditions of 20-22 per cent alkali, 25 per cent sulphidity, 162-177 0 C temperature 

and 5-6 hours cooking time for the pulping of culms of all ages in a mixture including nodes, were 

used initially (Raitt 1912) 231 . A fractional method of digestion was developed later which involved 

10 per cent total alkali on air-dry bamboos at a concentration of 2 per cent alkali for 2 hours at 

115-121 0 C for the first stage followed by a second stage consisting of a total alkali of 18 per cent on 

air-dry bamboo at a concentration of 6 per cent cooking liquor for 3 hours treatment at 150 0 C. The 

spent liquor from the second stage of digestion was used for the first stage. The pre-cook could be 

considered as buffered soaking at high temperature, to achieve penetration without damage to the 

carbohydrates prior to the actual cooking reactions. Yield of 45-50 per cent unbleached pulps was 

obtained. The sulphate pulping of reed bamboo was reported to produce 92.7 per cent alpha-cellulose 

(Anonymous 1947). The requirements of alkali charges for the unbleached and bleached grades of 

bamboo pulp at temperatures of 160-170 0 C for several hours were described by Anonymous (1949) 

and Sproull (1955) 472a . Bambusa vulgaris from Mexico was reported to be suitable for kraft 

pulping (Carrasco and Salvador 1961) 30 . The giant Philippine bamboo Gigantochloa aspera was 

reported to produce sulphate pulps of excellent tearing strength (Monsalud 1964) 58 . By maintaining 

optimum conditions for sulphate cooking, it was possible to obtain good quality kraft pulp with a 

yield of 45 per cent from Neohouzeaua dulooa (Nepenin and Bang 1969) 467 . The kraft/sulphate pulps 

were darker and hard to bleach, but were strong enough for packaging products. Later, Kadarisman 

and Silitonga (1974) 405 described the sulphate pulping of some South-East Asian bamboos. Sulphate 

pulping of Dendrocalamus giganteus was tried and results were compared with those of D. strictus, 

the main species of bamboo used for pulp and paper in India. D. giganteus is a better raw material for 

both unbleached and bleached pulps (Guha et al. 1975) 41 . Unbleached pulp from Bambusa tulda by 

kraft process can be produced with a yield of up to 44.1 per cent the species is suitable for the 

manufacture of wrapping, writing and printing papers (Bhola 1976) 218 . 

9.2.1.3. Kraft-anthraquinone (AQ) pulping 

Anthraquinone (AQ) can act as a pulping catalyst and increase the rate of delignification and the alkali 

demand. Low sulphidity (15%) kraft pulping of muli bamboo (Melocanna baccifera) with 

anthraquinone (0.05%) increased the pulp yield by 2 per cent of oven-dried bamboo compared with 

that from low sulphidity kraft pulping alone, and by 0.8 per cent over that of normal (25% sulphidity) 

kraft pulping (Maheshwari 1979 464 ; Nazak 2et al. 1979) 465 . The viscosity of AQ-catalysed low 

sulphidity kraft pulps was almost equal to that of the normal kraft control and better than that of the 

pulp from low sulphidity (15%) kraft pulping alone. Burst, tear and tensile strength properties were 

almost the same as or better than that of pulp obtained in normal kraft pulping. The use of AQ is 

51

therefore, not only beneficial at low sulphidity in improving the yield and quality of the pulp but it 

will also lead to reduction of air pollution because of the lower sulphidity input (Bhowmick et al. 

1991 376, 447 ; 1992) 449 . A tentative economic analysis of kraft and soda-anthraquinone pulping of 

muli bamboo showed that better benefits could be achieved in soda + AQ pulping compared with soda 

pulping (Goyal and Misra 1982 456 ; Bhowmick et al. 1992) 449 . Bhandari (1981) 445 prepared kraft 

pulps from Oxytenanthera ritcheyi by three different cooking schedules. On the basis of pulp 

evaluation for various strength properties, kappa number and unbleached pulp yield, optimum pulping 

conditions, O. ritcheyi was a suitable raw material for the production of wrapping and writing 

/printing papers. Vapour phase kraft pulping of Dendrocalamus strictus was described by Goyal and 

Misra (1982) 492 . 

9.2.1.4. High-yield kraft pulping 

To improve the pulp yield to about 60-64 per cent, a process for the separation of fibres and 

parenchyma and separate digestion of both, followed by blending was developed by Vyas et al. 

(n.d.) 435, 436 . In the conventional sulphate pulping process, Dendrocalamus strictus containing 35.7 

per cent parenchyma and 64.5 per cent fibres gave a yield of 40.5 per cent only. About 91 per cent of 

original parenchyma contained in the bamboo was lost during the sulphate pulping. The improved 

process developed for high-yield pulping consisted of mechanically disintegrating bamboo chips for 

splints to cause cleavage between fibres and parenchyma tissues and separately processing each tissue 

to pulp. From the mechanically separated fibre fraction chemical pulp was obtained by conventional 

digestion and beating process. The amount of bleached fibre pulp and parenchyma pulp obtained was 

the same. On mixing the two pulps, the final yield went up to 60-70 per cent of original bamboo. The 

pulp was found to be suitable for the production of cheap grade printing paper. 

9.2.1.5. Alkaline sulphite pulping 

The use of magnesium sulphite for the digestion of bamboo was reported (Tutiya et al. 1941) 201 and 

later ‘magnifite’ process was reported for Dendrocalamus latiflorus (Chao and Pan 1963) 360 . 

Increased pulp yield, stronger pulp, shorter cooking time and reduced consumption of cooking 

chemicals, etc. were the advantages of this process. Rydholm (1966) 71 reported the sulphite pulp 

yield of Dowga bamboo Bambusa bambos. 

Bamboo chips, after impregnation with 40 per cent Na2SO3 for 24 hours and steam cooking for two 

minutes at 187 0 C (saturated steam pressure 1.26 MPa) was found not capable of producing good 

quality pulp at ultra-high yield. A combination of Na2SO3 with a lower percentage of NaOH was 

suggested to be a compromise between pulp yield loss and a gain in strength properties (Ray et al. 

1994) 67 . 

52

9.2.1.6. Alkaline sulphite - anthraquinone (AS – AQ) pulping 

Pulping bamboo using the alkaline sulphite process, with added anthraquinone facilitated easier 

pulping at comparatively low cooking temperatures and gave a higher yield, higher pulp brightness 

and easier bleaching than did kraft pulping (Jauhari and Ghosh 1984) 404 . Addition of 0.1% AQ 

offered the advantage of producing pulp of low kappa number (originally 25 and 32) with high pulp 

yield (originally 61and 60 respectively for kappa numbers 25 and 32) and also enabled the cooking 

temperature to be reduced. Alkaline sulphite-AQ pulping for Bambusa arundinaceae was reported by 

Wang (1982) 439 and Phyllostachys pubescens by Yao and Zou (1986) 442 . 

9.2.1.7. Neutral sulphite semichemical (NSSC) pulping 

Unbleached pulps of yield 56-68 per cent and with satisfactory strength properties were prepared from 

Dendrocalamus strictus by the NSSC process (Guha and Pant 1961) 395 . Bleaching of the NSSC pulp 

achieved 37-44 per cent yield with satisfactory brightness and strength properties for the production 

of white papers. The suitability of Bambusa vulgaris from Mexico for the NSSC pulping was reported 

by Carrasco and Salvador (1961) 30 . Acid soluble lignin to the extent of 1.5 per cent was reported 

from the bamboo NSSC pulp (Schowing and Johanson 1965). 

Out of the three pulping processes (cold-soda, neutral sulphite-NSSC and sulphate) compared by 

Chen et al. (1973) 383 , the NSSC pulps, although the lowest in yield, showed good strength (near that 

of imported Canadian kraft pulp) and to 72-88 per cent GE brightness by the C-E-H (chlorination 

/alkali extraction / hypo-chlorite bleaching sequence) schedule. The net yield of 48.3-53.2 per cent for 

the bleached pulp was well above that obtained from fully cooked pulps. Bamboo NSSC pulps were 

suitable for high-grade papers. 

9.2.1.8. Neutral sulphite – anthraquinone (NS-AQ) pulping 

Bose et al. (1998) 395 conducted neutral sulphite anthraquinone pulping of muli bamboo in the 

laboratory. The total yield gain in the NS-AQ process was 6 to 7.9 per cent more than that of the kraft 

control at kappa number 20. The use of 0.1 per cent AQ was sufficient to give the desired effect. The 

strength properties of unbleached NS-AQ pulps were lower than those of kraft pulps. 

9.2.1.9. Kraft – semichemical pulping 

Semichemical pulp with encouraging yield and characteristics from muli bamboo (Melocanna 

baccifera) was obtained by cooking with white liquor from the recovery cycle, ie., by adopting the 

kraft semi-chemical process. The strength properties of the semi-chemical pulp were relatively lower 

than those of conventional kraft pulp, but it was possible to produce an acceptable grade of pulp under 

53

carefully chosen cooking conditions. The yield was higher (72-74%) than that of conventional kraft 

pulp (45-48 per cent). The optimum limit of sulphidity in kraft (sulphate) pulping of muli bamboo was 

about 17 per cent, yielding best quality pulp (Alam et al. 1997) 365, 443 . 

9.2.1.10. Rayon grade pulping 

Prehydrolysis kraft pulping of bamboo for preparing rayon grade pulp was studied by various authors 

(Gohel and Thoria 1936; Jogleker and Donofrio 1951 162 ; Horio and Takhama 1958 477a ; Karnik 1958 

477b 479a 480a 481 

& 1963 ; Karnik and Sen 1958 and Ramsarma 1962) and carried to the mill scale in 

the Gwalior, India (Rydholm 1965) 78 . Prehydrolysis kraft pulping of reed has also been investigated 

(Simionescu et al. 1956 482a ; 1957 482b & 1958 482c ; Ivanov 1957) and carried to the mill scale in 

Rumania. 

Dissolving grade pulp from Phyllostachys bambusoides was prepared by prehydrolysis sulphate 

pulping techniques. Influence of the condition of raw material and different variables in the hydrolytic 

treatment upon the yield and characteristics of the pulps under constant pulping and bleaching 

condition was described by Nafziger et al. (1960) 417 . Dendrocalamus strictus was reported to be 

suitable for rayon grade pulp by the sulphate prehydrolysis process (Karnik 1961) 478, 479 . Viscose 

rayon pulp from Ochlandra travancorica was prepared by water prehydrolysis sulphate process (Bhat 

and Viramani 1961) 475 . Dissolving pulp can be prepared by prehydrolysis cooking at 160 or 165 0 C 

for 4 hours, followed by sulphate cooking at 160 0 C for 2 hours, with total NaOH 20 per cent, and 

sulphidity 20 per cent. With these prehydrolysis conditions, pentosans were less than 5 per cent. 

Rayon grade pulp was prepared from Bambusa bambos, Dendrocalamus strictus, Melocanna 

baccifera and Ochlandra travancorica by using prehydrolysis sulphate pulping (followed by multistage 

bleaching sequence consisting of chlorination/ caustic extraction/ hypochlorite/ chlorine 

dioxide/ SO2 treatment. Suzuki (1964) 484 reported about a Japanese technique, the ‘Kakusapu 

process’, for the preparation of viscose from bamboo. Pulps produced from B. bambos, B. vulgaris 

and B. aurea (Syn. B. atrovirens) using commercial digestion conditions were found not suitable for 

rayon manufacture (Lele 1964) 480b . It was found that Bambusa bambos was superior to Phyllostachys 

reticulata in polymerisation and yield (Tsuji et al. 1965) 432 . Rydholm (1966) 71 reported the data on 

chemical composition (percentage of extractives, lignin, cellulose and hemicelluloses), sulphite pulp 

yield, alpha cellulose content and prehydrolysis kraft pulp yield for Dowga bamboo (Bambusa 

bambos). He also described the role of bamboo in India for dissolving pulp industry. 

Prehydrolysis may be the only effective means of removing the pentosans from the bamboo chips 

(though at a cost of considerable loss of alpha-cellulose) and thus enabling a dissolving grade pulp to 

be obtained (Bawagan 1968) 268 . Among many species evaluated Bambusa bambos, Dendrocalamus 

54

strictus, Melocanna bambusoides and Ochlandra travancorica are commonly utilized for the 

production of rayon grade pulp (Singh and Bhola 1968) 483 . The relationship between pulping 

conditions and reactivity of dissolving pulp prepared from bamboo (Melocanna bambusoides) by the 

prehydrolysis sulphate process was examined by Oye et al. (1970) 421 and Oye and Mizuno 

(1972) 423 . Bamboo pulp has lower resistance to mercerisation than hardwood pulp made by similar 

process and has low resistance to sulphidation. Its filterability is similar to that of wood pulps. Pande 

(1970) 62 described a promising technique in sulphate pulping that permits the removal of sufficient 

pentosans to bring the pulp within the limits specified for dissolving grade pulp. The characteristics of 

rayon grade pulp produced from Indian bamboos were reported by Nair (1970) 9 (Appendix 5.C) 

Chang and Kuo (1976) 382 described the manufacturing of dissolving grade pulp from the Chinese 

bamboos, Sinocalamus latiflorus and Bambusa stenostachya. Kuang et al. (1985) 461 made a 

comparison of the mercerisation of kraft pulps from bamboo and spruce. 

9.3. Non-conventional and other pulping methods 

Hydrotropic pulping, as an effort to develop pollution-free pulping processes using sodium xylene 

sulphonate as solvent, was reported for making bamboo rayon grade pulp. In this method, the bamboo 

is cut, crushed, dried and then digested by means of a 30-50 per cent solution of aqueous sodium 

xylene sulphonate at about 160 0 C for 6 hours and at 180 0 C for 7-8 hours. After digestion the pulp is 

washed in a solution of about 20 per cent sodium xylene sulphonate and bleached. The lignin can be 

separated from the digestion liquor by adding water and the liquor can be used again. A yield of 46 

per cent unbleached pulp was obtained by this process from Bambusa tulda and 42 per cent from 

Phyllostachys bambusoides. The pulp had a high cellulose content and was suitable for rayon 

manufacture (Anonymous 1947). 

During hydrotropic pulping of bamboo, a fraction of pentosans is converted to furfural and dissolved 

in the hydrotropic liquor along with lignin. However, the sum of dissolved furfural and of pentosans 

remaining in the pulp is less than the pentosan content of bamboo. Approximately 50 per cent of alpha 

xylose is converted into furfural if the latter does not decompose in the hydrotropic solution. The 

proportion of converted xylose increases upon addition of acetic acid to the solution and decreases 

upon addition of lignin (Hasegava and Ito 1959) 287 . Schwenzon (1963 74 ; 1965) 75 reported the 

possibility of hydrotropic pulping of bamboo, especially using salicylic acid/ glycol at temperature 

160-170 0 C for 3-6 hours cooking period. 

Organosolv pulping of Dendrocalamus strictus using ethanol-water as the delignifying agent results 

in chemical pulps with yield 43-44 per cent. Use of sodium xylene sulphonate (1.0%) as a pulping 

additive can improve the strength properties: tensile index by about 5 per cent, tear index 30 per cent 

55

and burst index by about 15 per cent, but the tensile index and burst index was lower than that of 

bamboo kraft pulp of equivalent yield by about 20 per cent and 37 per cent respectively whereas tear 

index was slightly higher (4.0%). However, use of dodecyl benzene sulphonate sodium salt as 

pulping additive does not exhibit any significant influence on either type of pulp. Ethanol-water - 

sodium xylene sulphonate – bamboo pulp gives the best results in respect of strength properties. 

Sodium xylene sulphonate helps in stabilization of carbohydrates during the process of 

delignification, as a result of which an improvement in strength properties is observed (Singh et al. 

1989) 193 . 

The chlorination process is reported to be suitable for the production of bleachable pulp from 

Cephalostachyum pergracile (Mai-Aung 1961) 520 . Mahanta et al. (1979) 412 described the non- 

sulphur pulping of bamboo. Maheshwari (1982) 51 described some basic aspects of high-yield 

pulping. A laboratory study conducted by Zafar and Abdullah (1987) 122 indicated that bio- 

mechanical pulping (biological delignification) of bamboo by Coriolus versicolor might be possible. 

Under some economic considerations, nitric acid pulping of bamboo is worth commercial 

consideration (Bolker and Singh 1965 379 ; Mahanta and Chaliha 1970) 411 . A highest screened pulp 

yield of 40.9 per cent was obtained in the cooking of Bambusa bambos with 10 per cent HNO3 for 6 

hours and extracting with 1 per cent NaOH at 120 0 C for 1 hour. In view of the low pentosan content 

of the pulp, nitric acid pulping is promising for paper grade pulp (Biyani 1966 377 ; Biyani et al. 

1967) 378 .. Air-dry chips of Dendrocalamus strictus were cooked with nitric acid and sodium nitrite 

and the residual wood was extracted with dilute solution of caustic soda. Addition of sodium nitrite up 

to a certain extent enhanced the delignification while pulping by nitric acid process. The Klason lignin 

content, pentosan content and permanganate number of the pulp were found to decrease with increase 

in concentration of nitric acid and cooking time and temperature (Dhawan 1980) 385 ). 

Yamagishi et al. (1970) 440 delignified the Japanese Sasa bamboos (Sasa senanensis) by peracetic 

acid pulping at 70 0 C. The pulp yield was 57.3 per cent, with low lignin content. The brightness of 

the pulp was high, but the pentosan content was greater than 20 per cent. The pulp was markedly 

superior in breaking length and burst factor, and slightly superior in tear factor, to a semi-kraft pulp of 

similar yield and lignin content, while its folding endurance was satisfactory. Microscopic observation 

revealed fibres with an intact structure accompanied by many small parenchyma cells. 

9.4. Effect of variables - Factors affecting pulp yield 

Phyllostachys makinoi and six other species were pulped in the Raitt process and the effect of 

variables such as time, sulphidity, etc. were investigated and yields of 41-47 per cent were obtained 

56

(Du 1957) 386 . Yields of 82 and 62 per cent for cold soda semi-chemical and neutral sulphite pulps 

respectively were attained from Phyllostachys bambusoides, but stone grinding with and without 

chemical pre-treatment failed to produce satisfactory pulps from the mature culms (Nafziger et al. 

1961) 417 . The effect of temperature, pressure, alkali strength, and cooking time while pulping B. 

bambos, B. vulgaris and B. aurea (Syn. B. atrovirens) on their alpha cellulose content and optimum 

conditions for each species was reported by Lele (1964) 480b . 

Splitting of the digestion into two stages with an intermediate refining stage will increase the pulp 

yield of bamboos (Singh et al. 1970) 427 . The increase in yield of kraft bamboo pulp from 47.1 to 53.3 

per cent is without any significant effect on the strength properties. In the binary pulping process 

suggested for Dendrocalamus strictus, the chips are disintegrated by a kollergang or a refiner and 

separated by screening into prosenchymatous and parenchymatous tissues. These are pulped 

separately by the sulphate process or by mechanical process. The pulps of yield 75 per cent (based on 

OD weight) are then mixed to obtain maximum yield of pulp of acceptable strength. Pulping 

procedures that give yields of approximately 40-45 per cent bleached chemical pulp from 

prosenchymatous tissues and approximately 29-35 per cent mechanical pulp from parenchymatous 

tissues, will help in using pulp mixtures with more than 50 per cent chemical pulp (Mukherjea 1967) 

182 

.. Refiner is more suitable than a kollergang, both for disintegrating chips and for grinding the 

steamed chips. 

Factors affecting the relative yield of sulphate pulp obtainable from bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus) 

by two different cooking systems were evaluated. An alkaline treatment for the brown stock was also 

suggested for its high yield pulping (Banthia et al. 1972b&c). Mild alkali treatments on hard, 

moderately hard and normally cooked chemical and semi-chemical pulps of bamboo can produce soft 

pulps with minimum loss of yield and properties (Banthia et al. 1972) 371, 372 . Alkali treatment for 

Arundinaria jaunsarensis (Ringal) at 30 0 C is beneficial as far as the pulp characteristics are 

concerened. The ash, pentosan and lignin content of the soaked material decreases with increase in 

cellulose content and in the concentration of alkali in the soaking liquor (Khanduri and Biswas 

1960) 410 . Treatment with alkali before chlorite treatment will produce pulp with high content of alkali 

resistant pentosans whereas chlorite treatment alone will make the pentosans non-resistant to alkali 

extractions, and once pentosans are rendered non-resistant, it will be difficult to revert them back to 

resistant pentosans (Guha and Negi 1972) 394 . 

Kraft sulphate pulp yield from the Taiwan bamboos, Bambusa beecheyana var. pubescens, B. 

dolichoclada, B. stenostachya, Dendrocalamus latiflorus and Phyllostachys makinoi varied with 

cooking conditions, from 41 to 47 per cent (Chao and Pan 1972) 452 . Chen et al (1974) 361 prepared 

pulps for printing papers from five species of bamboo by three pulping processes: (a) two-stage 

57

digestion with hot water (150 0 C) followed by NaOH; (b) two-stage digestion with dilute NaOH (at 

100 0 C) followed by more concentrated NaOH; and (c) single-stage digestion with NaOH. In each 

trial the pulp was bleached in three stages before testing. Process (a) (2- stage digestion with hot water 

followed by NaOH) gave the highest yield and best physical properties of pulp and the lowest 

bleaching ratio, resulting in economical pulping. The pulp with the best physical properties was from 

Bambusa beecheyana var. pubescens and B. dolichoclada followed by B. stenostachya and 

Dendrocalamus latiflorus. Phyllostachys makinoi was judged the least suitable. This result about the 

suitability of these species was in agreement with the earlier findings of Chao and Pan (1972) 452 . 

The effect of pH on the pre-hydrolysis of Dendrocalamus strictus was described by Devi et al. 

(1982) 384 . Chips were cooked in 1per cent H2SO4, 10 per cent NaOH or water for 90 or 150 minutes. 

Pulp yield decreased at higher initial and final pH values and with longer pre-hydrolysis. Kar et al. 

(1987) 406 described the effect of moisture content in the bamboo chips on pulping characteristics. 

Strength properties and bleachability of high yield pulp can be improved through chemical 

modifications of their lignin Singh et al. (1987) 318 Soda thermo mechanical (STM) and soda–sulphite 

thermo mechanical (SSTM) pulps of bamboo can be modified using chlorine, sodium sulphite and 

hypochlorite. 

Alkali consumption, kappa number, unbleached pulp yield and chemical composition of 12 Indian 

bamboo species and their pulps are described by Singh (1989) 77 (Appendix 5.A) 

9.5. Effect of active alkali content 

Semana (1965) 426 , in his studies on the variables in sulphate pulping of the Philippine bamboo, 

Gigantochloa aspera has shown the interactions of active alkali concentration, kappa number and 

sulphidity as well as cooking temperatures, pulp yield and pulp strength. A total of 12-24 per cent 

alkali (based on OD fibre) is sufficient to produce pulp ranging from high kappa numbers (up to 70) 

suitable for wrapping papers to easily bleachable grades with kappa numbers as low as 12.6. Yields 

and strength properties of pulps often are practically unaffected within a sulphidity range of 17.0-33.9 

per cent. If alkali content drops below 20 per cent, the kappa number will rise when sulphidity 

exceeded 25.5 per cent. Pulp from bamboo cooked at a maximum temperature of 180 0 C may show 

similar yields but will have low strength than those digested at 170 0 C. At lower alkali concentrations, 

180 0 C cooking will yield pulps with lower kappa number. For making wrapping paper and linear 

board stock, less than 20 per cent alkali and a maximum temperature of 170 0 C are preferable. 

Kraft semichemical pulps with the best physical properties were produced with the use of 15 per cent 

active alkali, which also enabled the yield to be increased by approximately 5 per cent compared with 

58

the conventional sulphate pulp. The kraft semi-chemical pulp was having excellent chemical 

properties, superior to larch and birch pulps (Ujiie and Matsmoto 1967) 473 . The low yield of bamboo 

pulp compared with that of hardwoods can be improved at the expense of strength by pulping with 

only 10 or even 5 per cent active alkali. Sulphate pulp at a screened yield of 41.4 per cent and 

permanganate number of 15 from Bambusa vulgaris was produced using an active alkali of 15.6. 

Evaluation of the pulp characteristics showed that addition of beater adhesives will yield pulp with 

improved quality desired for bag and wrapping papers (Escolano and Semana 1970) 147 . 

To find out to what extent the cooking should be continued in kraft pulping of muli bamboo 

(Melocanna baccifera), the effect of active alkali charge was studied by Shah et al. (1991) 472 . The 

rate of delignification increased with an increase in active alkali charge. The transition points 

between the initial and bulk, and between the bulk and residual phases shifted to a lower lignin 

content with an increase in alkali charge. The use of an active alkali charge of 18 per cent as NaOH 

was sufficient to continue the cook in the delignification phase. Cooking of Bambusa vulgaris grown 

in Ghana with 18 per cent active alkali for 90 minutes yielded 54.2 per cent pulp with kappa number 

of 48.2 (Sekyere 1994) 234 . From the physical and strength properties of the pulp, it was found that B. 

vulgaris could produce good paper. 

9.6. Pulping of mixture of bamboo and hardwoods 

The cooking of different species (M. smithii and B. vulgaris) separately and as mixture and the papers 

made from both the pulps were described by Istas and Raekelboom (1960) 220 . For the production of 

unbleached pulps from a mixture of bamboo and mixed hardwoods, the minimum proportion of 

bamboo required is 50 per cent for good strength properties (Guha et al. 1966) 397 . Pilot scale trial 

production of bleached pulps from a mixture of 50:50 proportion of bamboo and mixed hardwoods at 

the Bengal Paper Mill, Raniganj, India was carried out under different conditions of sulphate pulping 

and bleaching. The ideal condition for the sulphate cooking is to use a sulphidity of 25 per cent with 

total chemicals of 15.5 per cent Na2O at 170 0 C for 2 hours. A pulp yield of 52 per cent can be 

achieved with permanganate number 18.8. Good breaking length (5310 m), burst factor (39.4), tear 

factor (120) and folding endurance (double folds of 240) can be expected. 

Studies on sulphate pulping of bamboo and mixed hardwoods showed that satisfactory high- and lowbrightness 

pulps and semi-bleached pulps could be obtained from a 50:50 mixture of bamboo and 

mixed hardwoods (Singh et al 1968) 532 . Bhargava et al. (1969) 487 studied the effect of impregnation 

temperature and alkali concentration on the cooking of mixture of bamboo and mixed hardwoods. For 

a mixture of 60 per cent Dendrocalamus strictus and the remaining portion with hardwood, Boswellia 

serrata, the optimum unbleached pulp yield from chips cooked with 18.5-20 per cent active alkali was 

59

obtained at an impregnation temperature of 125 0 C. With higher alkali concentration, a lower 

impregnation temperature can be used, but the total yield of unbleached pulp will be reduced. 

Generally, bamboos and hardwoods have different cooking characteristics. Thus, ideally, it is better 

to cook separately and then blend the pulps together. Bamboo and a hardwood, Boswellia serrata, 

although grown under the same climatic and soil conditions, had different cooking characteristics; 

while a better grade pulp with less chemical consumption was produced from bamboo by the 2-stage 

temperature treatment method, it took a 4- stage impregnation method for B. serrata. Bamboo and B. 

serrata should therefore be cooked separately. However, as the total bleach demand of the two pulps 

produced by the same method of cooking to the same kappa number level is very similar, pulps can be 

mixed together and bleached (Mishra and Rao 1969) 57 . 

Guha and Sharma (1970) 38 compared the chemical pulping of the hardwood, Casuarina equisetifolia 

with the bamboo Dendrocalamus strictus. They produced wrapping paper from unbleached pulps of 

C. equisetifolia, bamboo and a 75:25 mixture of the two. Yield and strength properties were higher for 

the hardwood pulp, but it was not suitable for mechanical pulps. Pasaribu and Silitonga (1974) 497 

reported on trials of sulphate process of a 3-component mixture of hardwoods and four bamboo 

species (Bambusa bambos, B. vulgaris, Dendrocalamus asper and Gigantochloa ater). Cooking 

conditions were recommended for mixed pulping of bamboos with hardwoods. The strength 

properties of pulps containing different component ratios are also discussed. 

Barrichello and Foelkel (1975) 374 briefly described the Kleinert’s rapid alkaline pulping process and 

gave the results of an experiment on the use of this method in the production of chemical pulp from 

Bambusa vulgaris var. vittata in Sao Paulo, Brazil. Pulp yields and strengths comparable with those 

obtained by the normal sulphate process were achieved, and there were savings in time and energy. 

They further found that in the case of blends containing 5 and 10 per cent bamboo (on total chip 

weight basis) with the hardwood Eucalyptus saligna, pulps were superior in yield and tear strength 

than the pulp from E. saligna, alone. There was no difference between the pulps in beating time, hand 

sheet density, tensile and burst strengths (Barrichello and Foelkel 1975) 373 . 

Satisfactory kraft pulps have been obtained with (a) 70 per cent bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus), 15 

per cent Mysore gum (Eucalyptus tereticornis) and 15 per cent dadup (Erythrina suberosa) and (b) 50 

per cent bamboo, 20 per cent Acacia arabica, 15 per cent Mysore gum and 15 per cent dadup 

(Krishnamachari et al. 1975) 48 . Alternatively, from a furnish containing 30 per cent chemical pulp 

from Ochlandra travancorica and 70 per cent stone groundwood/ refiner mechanical/ cold-soda/ 

sulphate pulp from stored and fresh Eucalyptus hybrid (Mysore gum), yielded newsprint of 

satisfactory strength properties (Guha et al. 1975) 41 . The preparation of mixed pulps from bamboos 

60

and hardwoods was described by Rai and Jaspal (1976) 498 also. Guha et al. (1980) 42 studied the yield 

and properties of pulps from bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus) combined with different proportions 

of mixed hardwoods. They found that increase in the percentage of hardwood slightly increased the 

yield and but decreased the strength properties. Mixed pulps had satisfactory properties for the 

manufacture of writing, printing and wrapping paper and 3- layer board. Singh et al. (1981) 78 took 

Dendrocalamus strictus’s pulpability suitability index as 100 and compared its pulping characteristics 

with hardwoods, whose suitability indices was 100 + /- 15, for wrapping and writing /printing papers. 

Cold-soda pulps mixed with bamboo sulphate pulp in the ratio of 4:1 appeared suitable for newsprint. 

A mixture containing 30 or 40 per cent bamboo residue along with mixed hardwoods was also 

reported to give satisfactory sulphate pulp yield with good strength properties (Chiou and Tsai 

1982) 489 . Dwivedi et al. (1983) 490 described the high yield semi-chemical pulping of a mixture of 

bamboo and hardwoods. 

Small dosage addition of anthraquinone (AQ) in the kraft pulping of bamboos with mixed tropical 

hardwoods was reported to be beneficial (Nazak et al. 1979 ) 466 . Comparison of kraft pulping at 17 

per cent sulphidity on bamboo + mixed hardwoods (70:30) with bamboo (100 per cent) and mixed 

hardwoods (100 per cent) using anthraquinone revealed that anthraquinone addition in kraft pulping 

liquor is beneficial for the economy of pulping bamboo and tropical mixed hardwoods (Goyal and 

Misra 1982 492 ; Rawath et al. 1985) 470 . A test case showed that the cost of pulp production could be 

reduced by Rs. 80/- tonne for bamboo and tropical mixed hardwoods in a medium sized pulp mill. 

Addition of different AQ dosages (0.05 to 0.25%) led to the reduction of the kappa number of 

bamboo+mixed hardwood pulp. Anthraquinone addition further helped to reduce the bleach 

consumption and improved the strength properties. AQ in small dosage (0.05%) is more effective in 

improving the yield of bamboo + mixed hardwood (70:30) digested at lower kappa number. 

Increasing the sulphidity from 0 to 20 per cent increased the pulp yield, reduced the rejects percentage 

and generally improved the strength properties. The effects were greatest in the 60:40 mixture of 

bamboo and mixed hardwoods and least in bamboo alone. Optimum sulphidity was 16 per cent for 

bamboo and 18 per cent for bamboo/mixed hardwoods (Mishra et al. 1984) 415 . It was reported that 

bamboos needed only lesser alkali than hardwoods for producing bleachable pulps. It was also found 

that pulps in higher yield can be produced by separate digestion of bamboos and mixed hardwoods 

(Bhargava et al. 1985) 217 . Mixed hardwoods, to 20 per cent in the mixed furnish, had no detrimental 

effect on pulping quality and the physical and strength properties. 

As it will be expensive to have separate streams for the cooking of bamboo and hardwoods, the 

feasibility of pulping them together was investigated in a 50:50 mixture. Encouraging results were 

obtained in the laboratory as well as pilot-plant trails. The investigation revealed that as the 

61

percentage of hardwoods in the mixture increased, the breaking length improved, burst factor 

improved slightly; tear factor and double folds decreased with the increase in the amount of 

hardwoods (Singh 1989) 193 . 

9.7. Effect of age, position of culm and nodes 

Kitamura (1962) 332 described the variation in fibre content of 1- to 6-year-old Phyllostachys 

reticulata after pulping by soda process. Age played no significant part, but fibre content was found to 

increase with culm height and to decrease from outer to the inner parts of the culms. Culms (from 15year-old 

clumps at Campinas, Brazil) ranging from 1 to 4 years in age were pulped by soda process. 

The effect of culm age on pulp yield was significant at the 5 per cent level for 2-year-old culms only. 

No effects on tearing, tensile or folding strength could be attributed to culm age. Paper from 2-yearold 

culms, however, had a significantly higher bursting strength. Pulps were in general highly porous. 

Bambusa vulgaris can produce paper of good quality, resembling that from unbleached kraft soft 

wood pulp in tearing strength. From the industrial viewpoint, no advantage is gained by selecting 

culms of a particular age (Medina and Ciaramello 1965) 181 . Processing variables in pulping, age and 

decay at the time of processing cause variation in the quality of sulphate pulp (Gopal 1968) 505 . 

Maheshwari and Satpathy (1984) 174 reported the pulp and paper making characteristics of bamboos 

of different ages. The pulp from young culms of sasa bamboo (Sasa kurilensis) was comparable with 

that of sulphite pulps of full-grown culms (Ujiie et al. 1986) 239 . In a study using 1-, 3-, or 5-year-old 

Bambusa vulgaris culms, shredded and treated with dilute H2SO4, fibre yield for paper making was 

higher in younger culms (Azzini et al. 1987) 266 . No appreciable changes in pulp yields and strength 

properties could be found with increasing the age of bamboos (Melocanna baccifera, Oxytenathera 

nigrociliata, Dendrocalamus longispathus, Bambusa tulda and Neohouzeaua dulooa) from 

Bangladesh, taken at three months intervals from 3 to 36 months (Razzaque et al. 1981) 233 . 

Subjecting Bambusa bambos of 1- to 6- years of age separately for pulping and evaluation of their 

characteristics indicated that this species attains maturity during the first year of growth, so that for 

pulping purposes, it is suitable for a 1-year cutting cycle (Shanmughavel and Francis 1996) 350 . 

As bamboos probably attain maturity within their first year of growth, a 12- month cutting cycle can 

be recommended for pulping material. 

Muli bamboo belonging to four age groups (9, 21, 33 and 45 months) from Bangladesh was kraft 

pulped. A bleachable grade pulp was obtained at lower cooking times with 9-month-old bamboo than 

with older ones. The pulp yield at a given point of delignification was highest with 21-month-old 

bamboo. The strength properties of the pulp were independent of age Bose et al. 1988) 451 . The 

62

pulping properties of bamboos of different ages were investigated by Xia (1989) 241 also. It was found 

that 1- to 2-year-old bamboos were suitable for pulping. The pulping characteristics of bamboos of 

different ages and different portions of the culms of a few common varieties are described by 

Maheshwari and Satpathy (1983 172 & 1990) 228 . Jamaludin et al. (1992) 161 reported the effect of age, 

active alkali and beating revolutions on the pulping characteristics of 1- to 3-year-old Gigantochloa 

scortechinii. The pulp properties of 1- to 3-year-old bamboos show satisfactory strength properties. 

Variations of fibre morphology and chemical constituents of Gigantochloa scortechinii due to 

position in the culm (within culm), between culms, and age (1-, 2-, 3-year-old) revealed that the fibre 

dimensions increased with age and decreased with height. Chemical composition data correlated 

insignificantly with age and height. Contents of chemical components increased with age and height. 

Regardless of age and culm height, the high cellulose content of this species together with its fibre 

characteristics indicates its good potential as a raw material for pulp and paper (Abdul Latif Mohamod 

et al. 1994) 324 . 

Although nodal portions produce poor kraft pulp, it is not feasible to separate nodes and internodes 

before digestion and the reduction in yield and quality of whole bamboo pulp due to the nodal portion 

is not significant (Maheshwari et al. 1976) 171 . Nodal and internodal portions of the bamboo culms 

differ in their chemical constitution. Internodal portion of bamboo has higher holocellulose and lower 

pentosans, extractives, ash and lignin compared to nodal portion. Pulp yield is lower with more rejects 

in the case of nodal portion (Maheshwari and Satpathy 1988) 175 . Fibre length and strength properties 

of pulp from nodal region is also comparatively lower. As such bamboo culms show the intermediate 

trend in all properties. Evaluation of the pulp properties of Bambusa vulgaris from Ghana also 

showed that it is not necessary to separate the node from internode during pulping (Sekyere 1994) 234 . 

9.8. Optimum utilization 

About 50,000 tonnes of bamboo dust are being reported to be wasted in India every year, and with the 

increase in utilization of bamboo from one million tonnes to two million tonnes, this wastage will 

naturally be on the increase. Many reports suggest the possible avenue of utilization of bamboo 

wastes for pulping. This includes the production of pressed pulp boards by Asplund 

thermomechanical defibration process (Singh 1960) 76 ; for paper and rayon grade pulps (Gupta and 

Jain 1966) 477 ; for the production of wrapping paper from the sulphate pulps and writing and printing 

papers from the bleached sulphate pulps (Guha et al. 1966) 457a . From bamboo shoot – sheath (BSS) 

of Sinocalamus latiflorus, after steam treatment, soda pulp was produced in the laboratory, and by 

neutral sodium sulphite in a paper mill; it was were found to have an average fibre length of 1.6 mm 

(equal to or longer than hardwoods), and suitable for making good quality printing paper and 

corrugating medium, or for blending with other pulps. The yield was low (20% on oven-dried basis) 

63

(Ku and Pan 1975) 224 . Chang and Duh (1978) 139 also described the utilization of bamboo residue for 

pulp and paper. Pulping of bamboo tops/twigs and branches was described by Ku (1978) 166 and 

Maheshwari (1982) 170 . The beneficial effect of anthraquinone (AQ) on the alkaline pulping of 

bamboo wastes was also established (Wang 1981) 437 . The shavings and nodes of Dendrocalamus 

latiflorus, Phyllostachys edulis and P. makinoi were pulped using the neutral sulphite–anthraquinone 

process. Yields and pulp strength (breaking length, burst and tear factors) were reported for varying 

total alkali, alkali ratio and anthraquinone in the pulping process (Wang and Lirn 1985) 537 . 

64

10. BLEACHING 

Use of bleaching powder for the bleaching of bamboo chemical pulps has the problem of a reversion 

of colour to a brownish shade while storage. A two-stage bleaching using the application of 70-80 per 

cent of the total bleach demand on the first stage and the remainder, 20-30 per cent, in the second 

stage overcomes the above issue of colour reversion (Bhargava 1945) 136 . An intermediate hot alkali 

wash with 0.1 per cent NaOH solution, containing about 2 per cent NaOH on the weight of air-dry 

pulp was given to partially bleached pulp at the end of first stage. After the second stage of bleaching, 

the pulp is thoroughly washed with water and then poured with chlorine or bleaching powder solution 

in the order of 0.1-0.2 per cent or 0.3-0.6 per cent respectively, on the weight of the pulp. Pulps 

bleached by this way is found to retain the whiteness and brilliancy of shade for reasonable long 

periods while storage. 

Many bleaching agents of both reducing as well as oxidising nature such as sodium bisulphite, zinc 

hydrosulphite, zinc dust and sulphur dioxide, sodium peroxide and sodium chlorite are accepted for 

the bleaching of bamboo mechanical pulps (Bhat and Viramani 1961) 475 . Of the reagents used, only 

sodium peroxide and chlorine to give satisfactory results with reasonable consumption of chemicals. 

Kato (1955) 408, 409 described the digestion of bamboo pulps. When bleached, NSSC pulps from 

Dendrocalamus strictus (yield 37-44%) were found to have satisfactory brightness and strength 

properties for the production of white paper (Guha and Pant 1961) 395 . Bleachable pulp could be made 

by the chlorination process from shredded Cephalostachyum pergracile (Mai-Aung 1961) 520 . The 

colour reversion of bamboo pulp bleached with CEH sequence was also reported (Bapna et al. 

1961 500 , Maheshwari et al. 1980 519 ; Maheshwari 1981) 517 . The sulphate pulp from Bambusa 

blumeana responded well to the standard three stage bleaching process. Good quality bond, air-mail 

bond, onion skin, kraft wrapping and bag papers could be produced from this species of bamboo 

(Escolano et al. 1964) 387 . Bleached sulphate pulp yields of 39-58 per cent are reported for bamboos 

(Gajdos et al. 1971) 389 . An optimum viscosity dissolving grade pulp from Dendrocalamus strictus 

was achieved by replacing the chlorination stage by CIO treatment; after further bleaching a most 

satisfactory bleached pulp was obtained (Pande 1966 523 ; 1967) 525 . The bleaching qualities of the 

sulphate pulp (yield 46%) produced from the Philippine bamboo, Schizostachyum luampao, equalled 

or exceeded those of Indian bamboos and the best North American bamboos. 

Satisfactory bag and wrapping papers were made with 100 per cent bamboo pulp and good writing 

paper from 70 per cent bleached bamboo and 30 per cent unbleached Philippine hardwood pulp 

(Anonymous 1966). The production of bleached sulphate pulp from mixture of bamboo and mixed 

65

hardwoods (50:50 mixture) was described by Guha et al. (1966) 398 . The unbleached pulp of bamboo 

and mixed hardwoods obtained by cold-caustic soda process possessed low initial brightness and 

consequently was hard to bleach. Bhat et al. (1972) 501 tried various bleaching methods and assessed 

the yield and efficiency of the methods to improve brightness of the pulps. Bleached pulps in 

satisfactory yields could be produced from ringal (Arundinaria spp.) (Guha et al. 1966) 397 . The 

bleach consumption and strength properties of sulphate pulp obtained from Phyllostachys 

bambusoides are comparable to those obtained from Dendrocalamus strictus except in the case of tear 

factor and folding endurance which are found lower in the case of P. bambusoides. But strength 

obtained is found sufficient for the production of writing and printing papers (Guha and Pant 1966) 396 . 

The Philippine bamboos, Gigantochloa levis, G. aspera, Schizostachyum lumampao, Bambusa 

vulgaris, B. vulgaris var. striata and B. blumeana are reported to be easily digested and bleachable 

pulps with permanganate numbers from 13.0 to 18.2 and screened pulp yield from 41.3 to 48.0 per 

cent can be obtained (Semana et al. 1967) 471 . 

Decayed bamboos consume more bleaching chemicals because of the high content of residual lignin 

in the pulp; cost of production is therefore higher than that from healthy bamboos (Bakshi et al. 

1968) 540 . The bleachability of bamboos from Gabon and reeds from India is described by Doat 

(1970) 502 . The CEH sequence of bleaching is detailed here. A comparison with typical pulps made 

from Central European conifers and hardwoods shows that bamboo pulps are more difficult to bleach 

and are generally inferior in mechanical properties. A procedure consisting of controlled hypochlorite 

bleaching followed by a mild H2O2 / SO2 treatment was developed for improved economical bleaching 

of bamboo sulphate pulp without loss of pulp yield or quality (Banthia et al. 1972) 372 . Maheshwari 

(1975) 495 detailed the chlorination of sulphate pulps of bamboo. The peroxide bleaching of CEHH 

bleached pulps and sulphate pulps was described by Ledouse et al. (1981) 516 . The effect of peroxide 

addition in extraction stage on optical properties of bamboo pulp was described by Maheshwari 

(1990). The effect of hydrogen peroxide addition in the alkaline stage of CEH as well as CED 

bleaching of bamboo pulp on the final bleached pulp properties was described by Rao et al. 

(1988) 529 . Inclusion of hydrogen peroxide in the bleaching extraction stage is advantageous. 

The results of bleaching tests on the sulphate pulps from the Taiwan bamboos, Bambusa beecheyana 

var. pubescens, B. dolichoclada, B. stenostachya, Dendrocalamus latiflorus and Phyllostachys 

makinoi were reported by Chao and Pan (1972) 452 . The pulping and bleaching trials on five Taiwan 

bamboo species by the cold-soda neutral sulphite (NSSC) and sulphate process were reported by Chen 

et al. (1973) 383 . The NSSC pulps, although lowest in yield, showed good strength and were bleached 

to 72-88 per cent GE brightness by the chlorination /alkali extraction / hypochlorite (CEH) bleaching 

sequence. The net yield of 48.3 – 53.2 per cent for the bleached pulp was well above that obtained 

66

from fully cooked pulps. The sulphate pulps were darker and hard to bleach, but were strong enough 

for packaging products. The best properties were shown by pulps from Bambusa beecheyana var. 

pubescens, followed by Bambusa dolichoclada, Bambusa stenostachya, Sinocalamus latiflorus and 

Phyllostachys makinoi; the last two being unsuitable for pulping. Bleached pulp from muli bamboo 

(Melocanna baccifera / M. bambusoides / Bambusa baccifera) was prepared by Guha et al. 

(1980) 42 in India and Karim et al. (1994) 407 in Bangladesh. 

The kinetics of chlorination stages of bleaching bamboo kraft pulps was described by Kumar et al. 

(1974) 515 and Maheshwari (1975) 495 . The bleaching properties of Bambusa tulda from Shillong were 

described by Bhola (1976) 218 . Bleaching of kraft pulp changes the properties of pulp throughout the 

CEH bleaching sequence (Jain et al. 1976) 512 . Bhandari (1981) 445 produced kraft pulp from 

Oxytenanthera ritcheyi at the optimum conditions of cooking and the pulp was bleached. The 

optimum bleaching conditions, bleached pulp yield, brightness and various strength properties of 

bleached sheets were also reported. This species was found as a suitable raw material for the 

production of wrapping, writing and printing paper. Hypochloite pre-treatment prior to chlorination 

has a beneficial effect on tear strength and folding endurance of bleached bamboo pulps (Fellegi and 

Rao 1980 4 ; Rao et al. 1980) 528 . The effect of chlorination and pH on final bleached pulp 

characteristics was explained detailed by Faul (1982) 504 . The effect of bleached pulp viscosity on 

strength properties was described by Maheshwari (1982) 518 . 

Pulps from the high-yield alkaline sulphite process with and without anthraquinone (AQ) can be 

easily bleached with calcium hypochlorite to a brightness of 78 and 76 per cent with bleached pulp 

yield of 59.4 and 57.4 per cent respectively. The physical and strength properties and opacity were 

matching with those of sulphite pulp (Jauhari and Ghosh 1984) 404 . The kraft – AQ pulping of 

bamboo and mixed hardwoods showed that bleach consumption of all the AQ-based pulps was lower 

and physical strength properties of the bleached pulps superior to pulps without AQ additive (Rawat 

et al. 1985) 470 . Pulps in higher yield can be produced by separate digesters and separate bleaching of 

bamboos and mixed hardwoods, instead of mixed digestion of these two raw materials of 

heterogeneous nature (Bhargava et al. 1985) 217 . High-yield pulps from bamboo wastes can also be 

bleached satisfactorily (Wang and Lirn 1985) 537 . The bleachability of pulp from both nodes and 

internodes is same under identical conditions. The bleached pulp viscosity is lower in case of pulp 

from nodal portion (Maheshwari and Satpathy 1988) 175 . 

The bleaching of bamboo pulps can be done to desired level of brightness with CHH sequence. Total 

chlorine requirement and post colour number are higher while the strength properties are lower in 

CHH bleached pulp compared to CEHH bleached pulp. For CHH bleached pulp of low kappa number 

67

adverse effects are not much (Suman and Subhash 1987) 535 . As the alkali extraction stage is 

eliminated, the alkali consumption is lower and colour of combined effluent of CHH sequence is very 

light compared to CEHH sequence. It is suggested that on maintaining the pulp kappa number low 

(below 25), CHH sequence can be followed. The bleachability of high yield pulps can be improved by 

chemical modification of lignin. Soda thermomechanical (STM) and soda sulphite thermomechanical 

(SSTM) pulps of bamboos are modified using chlorine, sodium sulphite and hypochlorite (Singh et al. 

1987) 318 . The C/ S/ H combination (chlorine-sodium bisulphite-hypochlorite) for bleaching of STM 

and SSTM pulps gave optimum strength properties at a brightness level of 45 per cent ISO (Tewari 

1992) 124 . 

Singh et al. (1988) 237 , in their review on aspects of pulping and paper making from bamboos, gave a 

brief account on the research efforts carried out on pulp bleaching. Cold-soda high-yield bamboo 

pulp has low initial brightness (20-27% ISO) and high yellowness (51-63%). Even with 25 per cent 

calcium hypochlorite, brightness achieved under normal conditions is only 45 per cent ISO (Rao et al. 

n.d 527 ; Roy et al. n.d) 530 . In general, conventional methods of bleaching lignin rich high-yield pulps 

are ineffective in brightening bamboo cold-soda pulp. Infra-red spectra of thin sheets of bamboo coldsoda 

pulp will indicate the presence of chromophoric groups such as acetyl, carboxylic structures, 

unsaturated carbonyl, ring quinone and conjugated structures which are either present in the raw 

material or produced during pulping and/ or bleaching are responsible for poor bleachability and high 

yellowness of bamboo cold-soda pulps (Islam et al. 1989) 511 . Also, it may be that some fine quality 

wax portions are present in the fibre may be creating a barrier to bleaching agent. Hypochlorite may 

be exerting an oxidising action on the wax causing the production of ester groups which are difficult 

to remove/ bleach. It is also possible that some colour bodies present undergo photochemical 

polymerisation and are strongly absorbed on the fibre surface (Tewari 1992) 124 . Bleachability of the 

pulp with oxidative and reductive bleaching agents like calcium hypochlorite, hydrogen peroxide, 

dithionite and borohydride are ineffective in improving the brightness of cold-soda bamboo pulp. Pretreatment 

with SO2/ H2SO4 and extraction of cold-soda pulp with alkali prior to hypochlorite 

bleaching has beneficial effect on brightness improvement (Rao et al. 1980) 528 . Presence of small 

amount of hydrogen peroxide in the pre-alkali extraction stage further improves the brightness even 

up to a level of 48 per cent ISO. To achieve a brightness gain of 6-7 points, about 5-6 per cent yield 

has to be sacrificed. Peroxides are used for the delignification of bamboo sulphate pulps (Maheshwari 

1985) 304 . Calcium hypochlorite bleachability of this pulp is enhanced when sodium carbonate is used 

as additive. The enhanced bleachability is due to the elimination of carbonyl groups following 

oxidation with nascent oxygen which is believed to be the active bleaching agent in sodium carbonate 

buffered calcium hypochlorite bleaching systems. 

68

The effectiveness of 12 commercial enzymes for pre-bleaching bamboo (Bambusa bambos and 

Dendrocalamus strictus) kraft pulps was investigated by Bajpai and Bajpai (1996) 444 . Different 

xylanases varied in their maximum obtainable effect. The enzymes, ‘Bleachzyme F’ and ‘Irgazyme 40 

S’ were able to decrease the active chlorine requirement in the first stage of bleaching by 20 

percentage or decrease ClO2 in the last stage of brightening by 4 kg per metric tonne of pulp in the 

CDEHD sequence. Alternatively, at the same chemical charge, it was possible to increase the final 

brightness approaching 89 per cent ISO. The use of enzymes had no adverse effect on the pulp 

viscosity and strength properties. 

The fines in bamboo unbleached pulp amount to around 30 per cent. The fines contain more of lignin, 

extractives and ash than the fibrous fraction. In the ‘whole’ pulp, the fines consume bleaching 

chemicals more than the fibrous part. Though the fines have comparatively poor optical property, 

according to Sahu and Patel (1996) 349 , these do not deteriorate correspondingly the optical properties 

of the whole pulp and there may not be any need therefore to eliminate the fines during paper 

manufacturing. 

69

11. BEATING 

As bamboo fibres are heterogeneous in respect of lumen width, fibre length, and diameter and 

proportions of parenchyma, which all in turn will result in differences in the physical properties of the 

pulp, beating will reduce the difference in these physical properties. Grant (1964) 506 described the 

beating characteristics of bamboo pulps. Singh et al. (1988) 237 gave a brief review of the research 

efforts carried on beating properties of bamboos. 

Control of temperature and consistency during the beating process is required to develop proper fibre 

to fibre bonding during the course of sheet formation. For bamboo pulp, the optimum temperature for 

beating is found to be 35 0 C and the optimum consistency is 1.5 0 . From a study made on the beating 

characteristics of bamboo pulp in a Valley beater, power consumption was more at higher temperature 

and less at higher consistencies (Guha et al. 1976) 508 . Beating of commercial bleached sulphate pulp 

from Dendrocalamus strictus in a Valley beater revealed that from the point of strength, the optimum 

temperature for beating is around 35 0 C. However, there is a linear relationship between breaking 

length/ bulk and freeness, which is independent of temperature and consistency (Guha et al 1976) 508 . 

As pentosan content in the bamboo pulp is increased, the beating time progressively reduces (Negi 

1970) 310 . Pulping and beating of mixed hardwoods and bamboo separately and then blending are 

preferred than cooking and beating of hardwoods and bamboo together (Biswas 1971; Singh et al. 

1971) 533 . Krishnagopalan et al. (1975) 514 described the effect of refining on the morphology and 

properties of bamboo paper. The effect of beating revolutions on the pulp characteristics of 1- to 3- 

year-old Gigantochloa scortechinii was described by Jamaludin et al. (1992) 161 . 

The effect of beating variables like consistency and temperature on strength development in bamboo 

pulp was reported by Singh et al. (1976) 533 . Investigations on the variations in fibre morphology as 

well as orientation of the fibres in the hand sheets revealed no significant difference in the strength 

properties, but when the temperature was varied, significant differences in fibre dimensions were 

observed. On beating, various cell wall layers of bamboo fibre open up leaving a gap between. This 

gap not only increases the percentage of void area in the sheet, but also does not allow the fibres to 

bind to a compact mass. This appears to be the main handicap of the bamboo fibres. Breaking length 

and burst factor are found higher when the pulp is beaten with a phosphor bronze tackle and the 

difference is more pronounced at lower consistency, whereas a stone roll beater gives a higher tear 

factor and the difference is more pronounced at higher consistency (Singh et al. 1976) 534 . In respect 

of strength properties there was a marked difference between the beaten and unbeaten pulps (Singh et 

al. 1976) 353 . 

70

Effects of beating on the fibre dimensions and the strength and optical properties of the sulphate pulp 

from Dendrocalamus strictus were described by Rao et al. (1978) 526 . Morphological changes in the 

fibres were illustrated by them through photomicrographs. The changes in relation to the observed 

critical beating value above which tensile strength and bursting strength declined were discussed. 

Bamboo pulp fibres respond to beating more rapidly than do wood fibres; this is probably due to the 

difference in secondary wall structure between the fibres. The secondary wall consists of alternately 

arranged broad and narrow layers. During the beating process, a number of transverse and concentric 

cracks are generated in the broad layers, which cause an internal fibrillation. The outer broad layers 

with their numerous cracks separate from the inner layers and swell greatly toward the outside. The 

outer secondary wall layer of bamboo fibres has a micro fibril angle of about 20 0 with respect to the 

fibre axis which is much smaller than that of the S1 layer of wood fibres. As a result, this layer appears 

to offer little resistance to prevent the external swelling of the broad layers (Wai et al. 1985) 357 . The 

mean values of strength properties of unbeaten and beaten pulps of 12 Indian bamboo species were 

reported by Singh (1989) 77 (Appendix 7). 

The optical properties of the bamboo pulp in terms of brightness remain almost constant as the 

beating proceeds while the brightness and opacity of wood pulps decrease. The increase in opacity 

and light scattering coefficient of bamboo pulp with increasing beating time has been attributed to the 

presence of fines. The bamboo pulp has a low scattering coefficient due to its rather high fibre 

coarseness (Hunter 2002) 157 . 

Addition of beater adhesives such as starch, guar gum and locust–bean gum improves the burst, fold 

and tensile strength considerably and produces high quality bag and wrapping papers from sulphate 

pulps of Bambusa vulgaris. The resulting papers have strength properties superior to those of the 

commercial papers and exceed the US Federal specifications (Escolano and Semana 1970) 147 . Guha 

et al. (1970) 393 reported the effect of 16 natural gums available commercially, two varieties of 

commercial carboxymethyl cellulose (Cellpro-LSH and Cellpro-LVE) and six samples of seed gums 

on bleached bamboo pulp as wet additives. 

71

12. PULP AND SHEET CHARACTERISTICS 

Bhargava (1945) 136 in his review of the investigations on bamboo for pulp and paper manufacture at 

the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun from 1860 to 1944, described the strength properties of kraft 

pulps of some selected Indian bamboo species. The compositions and strength of pulps obtained by 

soda, kraft and NSSC processes under varying conditions of cooking were compared and described by 

Fukuyama et al. (1955) 388 . The kraft process gave the strongest pulps. The NSSC pulp (yield 54- 

57%) showed excellent tearing strength, with an alpha-cellulose content of 59.8 per cent. Both kraft 

and NSSC processes were recommended for the pulping of sasa bamboos. The properties of pulps and 

papers prepared from 10 bamboo species of Belgian Congo, using three different methods of cooking, 

were described by Istas et al. (1956) 159 . Good sulphate pulps are obtainable, but except in tearing 

strength, the resulting papers are inferior to those of a medium quality kraft. The application of 

pressure while cooking will improve the quality of pulps. Unbleached pulps (yield 56-68%) of 

satisfactory strength properties can be prepared from Dendrocalamus strictus by the neutral sulphite 

semi-chemical (NSSC) process. When bleached, these pulps (yield 37-44%) will have satisfactory 

brightness and strength properties for the production of white papers (Guha and Pant 1961) 395 . Kato 

(1961) 47 prepared drawing paper from Japanese bamboo pulp and found it excellent. 

Kraft pulps made from the Philippine species, Schizostachyum lumampao, Gigantochloa aspera, 

Bambusa vulgaris, Bambusa blumeana were found deficient in burst strength, but had sufficient tear 

strength for Grade A and Grade B wrapping papers (Monsalud et al. 1965) 59 . Investigations on the 

soda pulp characteristics of 1- to 4-year-old culms of Bambusa vulgaris (Medina and Ciaramellao 

1965) 181 revealed no effects on tearing, tensile or folding strength due to culm age. Paper from 2- 

year-old culms, however, had a significantly higher bursting strength. Bambusa vulgaris produces 

paper of good quality, resembling that from unbleached kraft softwood pulp in tearing strength. From 

the industrial stand point, no advantage is gained by selecting culms of a particular age. No 

appreciable changes in the strength properties of pulp are found with increasing the age of five species 

of bamboos of Bangladesh origin (Melocanna baccifera, Oxytenanthera nigrociliata, Dendrocalamus 

longispathus, Bambusa tulda and Neohouzeaua dullooa) (Razzaque et al 1981) 233 . The pulp strength 

properties of 1- to 3-year-old Gigantochloa scortechinii were described by Jamaludin et al. 

(1992) 161 and found satisfactory. 

The yield, bleach consumption and strength properties of the pulps obtained from Phyllostachys 

bambusoides are comparable to those obtained from Dendrocalamus strictus except in the case of tear 

factor and folding endurance which are found lower in case of P. bambusoides. But the strength 

obtained is found sufficient for production of writing and printing papers (Guha and Pant 1966) 396 . 

72

Bleached kraft pulp of bamboo and mixed hardwoods (in the ratio1:1) is found to possess satisfactory 

strength properties. A bleached pulp yield of around 45 per cent is obtained with a tensile index of 

63.8-73.8 Nm/g, burst index 4.81-5.22 kPa.m 2 /g, and tear index 17.8-19.8 mNm 2 /g. 

Studies on the variations of sheet properties of the various sulphate pulp fractions from Gigantochloa 

aspera have shown that bursting and tensile strength increased, the tear strength decreased, and the 

folding endurance remained constant on going from long to short fibre fractions (Gonzalez and 

Escolano 1965) 390 . The Philippine bamboos, Gigantochloa levis, G. aspera, Schizostachyum 

lumampao, Bambusa vulgaris, B. vulgaris var. striata and B. blumeana gave kraft pulps with higher 

tearing resistance but lower folding endurance, bursting and tensile strength than softwood and 

hardwood pulps (Semana et al. 1967) 471 . The sulphate pulp obtained from Bambusa vulgaris 

(screened yield of 41.4 and permanganate number of 15.0) by using an active alkali charge of 15.6 

was characterised by very high tearing resistance but low bursting strength. The folding and tensile 

strength was within the range of other commercial kraft pulps, which are tested and used as standards. 

The experimental bag and wrapping papers produced from this pulp were higher in tearing resistance 

but lower in burst, fold and tensile strength. Addition of beater adhesives such as starch, guar gum and 

locust-bean gum in the pulp overcomes the above deficiencies and produces good quality bag and 

writing papers. 

As the pentosan content of the bamboo pulp is increased, the strength properties are also found to 

increase up to a critical limit of 14, 9 and 14 per cent respectively for breaking length, burst factor and 

tear factor (Negi 1970) 310 . 

Investigations on the influence of variation in fibre dimensions and parenchyma proportion on the 

sulphate pulp sheet properties of Dendrocalamus strictus revealed that inclusion of parenchyma 

lowered the tensile strength and tearing resistance up to 30 per cent (Singh et al. 1971) 354 . Jain and 

Reddi (1964), claimed that removal of parenchyma increased the bulk and reduced the strength 

properties. Fibre length, determined from unbeaten pulp, accounts for 77-90 per cent variations in 

strength properties. A high negative correlation with parenchyma proportion and the pulp sheet 

properties was reported. Fibre length and parenchyma proportion together accounted for 90 per cent 

of the variations in strength properties. 

Comparative data on the sulphate pulp properties and the properties of hand sheets from the sulphate 

pulps of Bambusa beecheyana Munro var. pubescens and some other Taiwan bamboos were reported 

by Ku (1971) 165 . Sulphate pulps of good strength properties, especially with high tearing strength are 

obtained from the Taiwan bamboos, Bambusa beecheyana var. pubescens, B. dilichoclada, B. 

stenostachya, Dendrocalamus latiflora and Phyllostachys makinoi. Pulp yields varied with cooking 

73

conditions, from 41-47 per cent (Chao and Pan 1972) 452 . Krishnagopalan (1973) 333 described the 

paper forming properties of bamboo in relation to its fibre characteristics. The tensile, burst and tear 

indices at lowest pulp yield (45%) was 45.4 Nm/g, 3.13 kPam 2 /g and 18 mNm 2 /g respectively (Singh 

and Guha 1975) 429 . The yield and strength of pulp obtained by the Kleinert’s rapid alkaline pulping 

process of Bambusa vulgaris var. vittata from Sao Paulo were comparable with those obtained by the 

normal sulphate process (Barrichello and Foelkel 1975) 374 . Because of the variation of properties 

within species, no relationship could be established between fibre characteristics and strength 

properties of paper; the variation in pulp sheet properties cannot be predicted from fibre dimensions or 

chemical composition (Singh et al. 1971 354 , 1976 353 ). Grading 12 Indian bamboos (including 5 

species of Bambusa and 3 species of Dendrocalamus) for their pulping suitability based on pulp yield, 

alkali consumption and sheet properties showed that Dendrocalamus hamiltonii was the best. High 

quality unbleachable pulps could be prepared from Ochlandra travancorica and O. rheedi (yield 48- 

49%, kappa number 22-25) using 15 per cent active alkali at 25 per cent sulphidity and 943 H-factor 

at 170 0 C. The tensile index, burst index and tear index ranged 63.9-70.6 Nm/g, 4.40-5.66 kPam 2 /g 

and 20-3-22.5 mNm 2 /g respectively (Singh et al. 1977) 236 . Dendrocalamus hamiltonii when 

compared with D. strictus and Bambusa tulda from Pakistan gave the highest soda pulp yield and best 

tearing strength properties comparable to those of karft pulp from Pinus roxburghii and Southern pine 

kraft pulp (Suleiman 1994) 196 . However, the bonding properties of bamboo pulp were inferior to 

those of softwood kraft pulp. The pulp sheet properties of some Indian bamboos were described by 

Singh and Bhola (1978) 316 . 

The characteristics of chemical, semi-chemical, chemi-mechanical and mechanical pulps obtained 

from the Brazilian bamboos (Guadua angustifolia, G. glomerata, G. morim, G. superba and Nastus 

(Cenchrus) amazonicus) were described by Correa et al. (1977) 143 . 

The strength properties of mixtures of bamboos and mixed hardwoods in different component ratios 

were described by Pasaribu and Silitonga (1974) 497 . The yield and properties of pulps from bamboo 

(Dendrocalamus strictus) combined with different proportions of mixed hardwood pulps (a mixture of 

30-40% each of Terminalia tomentosa and T. bellirica and 2.5-5% each of 8 other species) were 

reported by Guha et al. (1980) 42 . Increase in the percentage of hardwoods slightly increased the yield, 

but decreased strength properties. Even then, mixed pulps still had satisfactory properties for the 

manufacture of writing, printing and wrapping paper as well as for 3-layer board. 

Evaluation of strength characteristics of bleached and unbleached kraft pulps obtained from 

Oxytenanthera ritcheyi at optimum cooking conditions revealed that the species was a suitable raw 

material for the production of wrapping, writing and printing paper (Bhandari 1981) 445 . Sulphate, 

neutral sulphite, lime and thermo-mechanical pulps were prepared from Bambusa vulgaris, B. viridi, 

74

Gigantochloa apus and G. aspera. The chemical properties of the pulps were analysed in relation to 

their effect on paper properties. Neutral sulphite pulp gave the best results in terms of high yield and 

satisfactory paper mechanical properties (Tshiamala et al. 1984) 431 . The soda thermo-mechanical 

(STM) and soda-sulphite thermo-mechanical (SSTM) pulp from Dendrocalamus strictus was 

bleached with chlorine (2.5%) at 30 0 C and pulp consistency 2.5 per cent for 60 minutes followed by 

sodium sulphite (5%) treatment at 80 0 C and 5 per cent consistency for 60 minutes (C/ S 

combination). In a second set of experiment, the above treated STM and SSTM pulps were further 

treated with calcium hypochlorite (5% available chlorine) at 45 0 C and 8 per cent consistency (C/ S/ H 

combination). It was found that the C/ S/ H combination with the application of 5 per cent of each 

chemical gave optimum improvement in strength properties in all the pulps at brightness level 45 per 

cent ISO. For STM pulp, the tensile index increased from 22.07 to 30.18 Nm/g and burst index from 

0.72 to 1.56 kPam 2 /g. For SSTM pulps the tensile index rose from 32.28 to 42.96 Nm/g and burst 

index increased from 1.62 to 2.55 kPam 2 /g. 

The strength properties of unbleached normal sulphite (NS) – anthraquinone pulps from muli bamboo 

(Melocanna baccifera) were lower than those of kraft pulps (Bose et al. 1988) 451 . The physical and 

strength properties of the pulp were found to be independent of age of the bamboos. Anthraquinone 

(AQ) catalysed low sulphidity kraft pulp obtained from muli bamboo (Melocanna baccifera) had 

almost the same viscosity as that of the kraft control and better than the pulp of 15 per cent sulphidity 

(Bhowmick et al. 1991) 447, 448 . The burst, tear and tensile strength properties of the pulp increased on 

addition of anthraquinone. The strength properties of the anthraquinone catalysed pulps were almost 

the same or better than the pulp obtained in normal kraft pulping. 

The unbleached pulp (yield 49.8% with kappa number 28.3) properties of eight Chinese bamboos 

were described by Xia (1989) 241 . The pulp strength was found satisfactory. Based on the unbleached 

pulp yield and strength properties, he ranked Schizostachyum funghomii as the best and Bambusa 

textillis and B. pervariabilis as second and third and Phyllostachys pubescens (moso bamboo) as last. 

The pulp characteristics and physical properties of the paper handsheets made from bamboo and water 

hyacinth pulp blends were described by Goswami and Saikia (1994) 36 . Blending of bamboo pulp 

with water hyacinth increased the strength. Paper handsheets made with a blend of water hyacinth 

pulp (75 0 SR) at 75:25 proportion gave a tear index of 4.9 Nm 2 /g, tensile index of 51.1 Nm 2 /g and 

burst index of 7.3 kPam 2 g. These were higher than the values obtained from sheets made with pulp 

blends of 80:20 or 90:10. Blends of 75:25 were also found to give satisfactory greaseproof properties. 

The difference in secondary layer structure of bamboo fibres leads to different swelling behaviours 

compared to that of wood fibres. Bamboo paper showed a low drainage resistance (0.55) compared to 

75

Scandinavian birch (0.66) and eucalypts (0.77) and drainage time at a tensile index of 70 Nm/g. The 

presence of fines and their characteristic swelling behaviour may be the reason for this. The 

morphological characteristics of the bamboo fibres give paper with a high tear strength and burst 

index, which is rather similar to that of hardwood. The tensile stiffness is low compared to that of 

Scandinavian softwood. The strain strength lies between that of hardwood and softwood (Hunter 

2002) 157 . The ratio of fibre strength to bond strength is higher in the case of bamboo pulp compared 

to that of commercial softwoods. The tensile strength of bamboo can be improved by removing 

primary fines prior to refining. The bamboo fibres give sheets with high bulk and high porosity. The 

coarseness and the characteristic shape of the fibres cause an uneven surface, which necessitates 

coating with a pigment layer in order to achieve good printing results in pure bamboo papers. 

76

13. BLACK LIQUOR 

The bamboo kraft black liquor usually contains silica in the range of 5-8 g/l as SiO2. The high silica content 

leads to the formation of soluble silicates during pulping which causes troubles at the chemical recovery 

stage. The addition of calcium oxide to the black liquor is effective in reducing the silica content from 5.0- 

7.2 g/l to 1.3-1.8 g/l, and the precipitated calcium silicate is easily removed by filtration without reducing the 

amount of organic matter and sodium (Tsuji and Ono 1966) 433 . Desilicification of high silica containing 

kraft black liquor is achieved by using various reagents such as aluminium sulphate and magnesium 

sulphate, carbon dioxide (Isono and Ono 1967 399 ; 1968) 401, 402 and kraft green liquor by aluminium 

sulphate (Isono and Ono 1968) 400 . Kulkarni et al. (1984) 462 made an attempt for desilication by the method 

of lowering the pH of black liquor by carbonation. It was found that temperature and pH were the two 

important parameters that needed to be optimised for the selective precipitation of silica. The pH range for 

silica precipitation was largely influenced by the temperature during carbonation. Also it was found that at 

all temperatures and pH levels there was a co-precipitation of lignin. Treatment of sludge with calcium oxide 

or aluminium hydroxide at 80 0 C helps in re-dissolution of co-precipitated lignin without dissolving silica 

portion. The carbonised black liquor can be filtered easily on 600 mesh nylon cloth under reduced pressure 

of around 0.3 kg/cm 2 . Sathyanarayana et al. (1992) 73 made adaptations to black liquor evaporators so that a 

mixture of bamboo and hardwood pulp (at a ratio of 70:30) could be processed as effectively as bamboo 

alone. The viscosity of black liquors from bamboo alone and bamboo with mixed hardwoods in different 

proportions can be reduced with increase in initial residual alkali of the black liquor (Khare et al. 1984) 494 . 

This will help in reducing the clogging of the evaporated tubes and better performance of the recovery. 

Vanillin can be produced from bamboo black liquor by alkaline nitrobenzene oxidation, but yields are too 

low to make the process technically feasible (Bharatia and Veeramani 1974) 375 . The engineering properties 

(thermal conductivity and specific gravity) of bamboo kraft black liquors were reported by Koorse and 

Veeramani (1976) 459, 4 6 0 . 

Khanna and Swaleh (1981) 513 made the first report on the analysis of bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus) 

black liquor. Madan and Vijan (1995) 252 described the physico-chemical properties of Dendrocalamus 

giganteus kraft spent liquor. With a view to the possible utilization of kraft lignin as a by-product, lignin 

from spent liquor left from the pulping of sound and flowered Dendrocalamus giganteus by the kraft process 

was isolated (Vijan and Madan 1996) 263 . Data were tabulated on the C, H, O and S content of the lignins 

and the content of Klason lignin and functional groups (methoxyl, hydroxyl and carboxylic) and correlations 

between them, and on the relative retention time and percentage of alkaline nitrobenzene oxidation products 

of the lignins. The results indicate clear differences in structure between lignin isolates from sound and 

flowered bamboos. 

77

14. TYPES OF PAPER 

Experiments conducted at the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun have established the suitability of 

bamboo as a material for the manufacture of kraft paper and have led to the pioneering of the industry 

in India (Bhargava and Singh 1942) 26 . The bamboo pulp from Dendrocalamus strictus combined 

with different proportions of mixed hardwood pulps has satisfactory properties for the manufacture of 

writing and printing paper, wrapping paper and 3- layer board (Guha et al. 1980) 42 . 

Newsprint was produced from the bamboo Phyllostachys bambusoides (Nafziger et al. 1961) 417 . 

Dendrocalamus strictus was reported to be suitable for the production of white papers (Guha and Pant 

1961) 395 . Phyllostachys bambusoides is suitable for the production of writing and printing papers 

(Guha and Pant 1966) 396 . Ringal (Arundinaria spp.) is reported to be suitable for the production of 

chemical pulps by the sulphite process for writing and printing papers (Guha et al. 1966) 397 . Good 

quality bond, air-mail bond, onion skin, offset book, kraft wrapping and bag papers can be produced 

from the sulphate pulp of Bambusa blumeana (Escolano et al. 1964). Bambusa vulgaris was reported 

to be suitable for bag and wrapping papers with excellent tearing but poor bursting strength properties 

(Escolano and Semana 1970) 147 . The folding and tensile strength of both the pulp and paper are 

within the range of imported pulps/papers. Guha et al. (1970) 40 reported that Braille printing paper 

can be successfully produced from Indian bamboos. Jati bamboo (Bambusa tulda) was reported to be 

unsuitable for manufacture of wrapping, writing and printing papers (Bhola 1976) 218 . Oxytenanthera 

ritcheyi was reported to be a suitable raw material for the production of wrapping, writing and 

printing paper (Bhandari 1981) 445 . 

78

15. INDUSTRIAL EXPERIENCE 

Bamboo can be chipped in the same way as wood giving basically the similar chip form and 

appearance. The large sized bamboo has to be crushed before chipping. The chipping should be such 

that it should not produce fines. Bhargava and Singh (1942) 137 tested chips of Dendrocalamus 

strictus for uniformity, bleachability and pulp yield under identical conditions of digestion. The most 

satisfactory was that from the crushed one, but crushing has the disadvantage of high power 

consumption and also size of crushed chips was more irregular and uneven than that of chips obtained 

by oblique chipping. An ideal method would be to cut the bamboo into more or less uniform chips, 

and crush the chips, so that the bundle sheets of the bamboo vascular bundles would be loosened and 

separated out from the ground tissues and their rigidity reduced, thus giving an easier and quicker 

penetration of the cooking liquors. Initially mills used the two-stage pulping process developed by 

Raitt (1912 231 ; 1925; 1931) 424 at FRI, Dehra Dun, India. But with the advancement in research, at 

present mostly pulping is carried out in a single-stage cooking by kraft process. The general pulping 

conditions employed in paper mills in India are: active pulping chemicals 14-18 per cent as Na2O; 

sulphidity varying between 13 and 25 per cent at 160-170 0 C. The kappa number ranges between 16 

and 25 and the pulp yield between 40 and 45 per cent. 

Generally, in short fibred pulps, it is necessary to incorporate 25-30 per cent long fibred pulps, such as 

from bamboo (Bhat and Guha 1952 269 , 1953 270 ; Bhat et al. 1952 271 , 1956, 1960 27 ; Bhat and Jaspal 

1957) 272 . Chen (1958) 140 described the layout, equipments and methods of the mill of the Longlived 

Pulp and Paper Corporation Ltd. at Formosa. Lund (1942) 362a developed a mechanical disintegrator 

for the production of fibres. A defibrating machine, the ‘Chemifiner’, was introduced and its 

contribution to the process of low-power cold-soda pulping was described by Gremler and McGovern 

(1960) 391 . Bamboo shredded by a machine developed by the Armour Research Foundation in co- 

operation with the Union of Burma Allied Research Institute showed distinct advantages of easy to 

wash pulp, requiring less water and satisfactory chemical recovery and over chipped bamboos (Mai- 

Aung and Fleury 1960) 177 . Bamboo nodes were practically eliminated in the shredding action and 

therefore there was almost no silica in the resulting pulp. The absence of hard nodes results in less 

screening and uncooked particles. 

In order to reduce the surface wax content of Bambusa bambos while pulping, a steam treatment for 2 

hours is necessary (Beri et al. 1967) 135 . The penetration of alkaline liquor is much quicker and deeper 

in the cross-sectional than the longitudinal direction of the culm or chips. Alkali penetrates rapidly 

and uniformly once the outer waxy skin has been dissolved. Consequently, the deciding factor for 

79

effective cooking is not the length of the chip, but thickness of the culm which if shredded or crushed, 

is uniformly cooked whatever its length (Banthia et al. 1970) 369a . 

Bamboo fibres have become an established raw material for paper making in tropical countries using 

different types of paper machines. The study of Mishra and Kothari (1969) 56 will be of interest to 

paper technologists as well as those who are engaged in paper designing to suit the requirements of 

running bamboo pulp stock on a fourdrinier machine. 

To increase the yield of pulp for the production of kraft paper from bamboo and Eucalyptus grandis, 

experiments were conducted by splitting the digestion into two stages with an intermediate refining 

stage. The yield of bamboo pulp was found to increase from 47.1 to 53.3 per cent without any 

significant effect on the strength properties of pulp (Singh et al. 1970) 427 . The experiences on the 

pulping of bamboos and mixed hardwoods, from the Sirpur Paper Mills, India, showed that higher 

alkali concentration in the range of 16-20 per cent Na2O was required to produce a bleachable pulp 

with permanganate number 20, in comparison to the very low alkali (11-13% Na2O of 16-18% 

sulphidity) to produce pulp of the above quality from bamboos only (Mishra 1971) 54 . Sulphate pulps 

from both eucalypts and rubber wood can be mixed with bamboo chemical pulp for making the 

ordinary quality writing and printing papers (Nair 1971) 60 . The Bengal Paper Mill in India was the 

first pulp mill in the world to use the mixture of different species of hardwoods and bamboo in a 

continuous digester for pulping (a mixture of 60% of bamboo and 40% mixed hardwoods) with high 

heat diffusion washing (Bhargava 1968 486 ; Aggarwal 1971) 22 . The rejects on Johanson knotter are 

2.5 per cent of raw material. The pulps are bleached with 12 per cent chlorine in four stages. Various 

qualities of paper are made from the pulp. Evaluation of the strength properties of the pulps of 

composition 30 per cent mixed hardwoods and 70 per cent bamboo, beaten in Valley and Lampen 

mills at consistencies varying from 1.37 to 1.97 per cent, for different time intervals, obtained from 

the Bengal Paper Mills revealed that pulps beaten in the Valley beater at higher consistencies gave 

better strength properties (Singh et al. 1971) 531 . 

Hydraulic and steam phase type Kamyr digesters were employed earlier for the cooking of bamboo. 

Later on, modified pressurised feeder, the ‘ASTHMA’ digester has been employed for the pulping of 

bamboo. The raw material is heated up to 115 0 C by steaming in the steaming vessel. A plug feed 

discharges into the digester by means of high pressure steam of about 10-12 bar. The steam flow is 

used for heating the raw material to a cooking temperature of about 165 0 C. The raw material is 

retained at the cooking temperature in the liquor phase. Then it reaches the discharge zone located in 

the bottom of the digester. The pulp is discharged by means of a slowly rotating scraper and cooked 

by injecting wash water in the digester bottom. Then the pulp is discharged at 10 per cent consistency 

through the blow valve. This digester type is used in the Phoenix Mill in Thailand and operates on 

80

amboo and kenaf alternatively. The next development was to combine ASTHMA feeding system 

with conventional ‘Hi-heat’ washing system which can be applied to the chip characteristics of 

bamboo. The steam and power consumption in the ASTHMA digester is considerably lower 

compared with that of the batch digester system or other digester types for bamboo. The considerable 

amount of hot water with a temperature of 75 0 C produced could be used for pulp washing and in the 

bleaching plant. Two mills of the Hindustan Paper Corporation (HPC) in India, the Novgong and 

Cachar Mills are equipped with ASTHMA digester with Hi-heat washing system. The experience 

from Thailand and India clearly confirmed that the simplified ASTHMA feed system is a satisfactory 

system which gives proper impregnation and a small amount of rejects and the Hi-heat washing 

technique is as efficient on bamboo as it is on hardwood and softwood pulps (Singh et al. 1988 237 ; 

Tewari 1992) 124 . 

The sulphate pulping of bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus) was studied from the beginning to the end 

of cook, applying the concept of representing the times and temperatures of the cooking cycle by 

Vroom’s H-factor. The experimental results showed that H-factor can be employed as a means of 

predicting compensating adjustments of cooking times and temperatures to give the same yield of 

pulp, kappa number and lignin content with varying cooking cycles. This indicated that the concept of 

H-factor can suitably be applied as a guide for controlling sulphate pulping process of bamboo in 

mills by predicting times for a variety of temperatures or vice-versa to make necessary adjustments in 

the cooking cycle so as to get equivalent pulp yield. For an experimental standard cooking cycle of 90 

minutes from 80-170 0 C and 90 minutes at 170 0 C employed, the H-factor was found to be 91982 

(Singh and Guha 1976) 430 . 

The design of special drum-type chippers for processing bamboo without splintering was described in 

Anonymous (1978b). The performance of a PN bamboo disc chipper (investment, maintenance costs 

and chip quality) was reported to be superior to that of others used in the Indian pulp and paper 

industry (Pandit et al. 1978) 13 . Suitability of some Indian bamboos for pulp and paper was reported 

by Nair (1970) 9 (Appendix 8). 

In many mills, the bleaching of kraft pulps is carried out by using chlorine and calcium hypochlorite 

as bleaching agent with intervening caustic soda extraction. Total bleach demand varies from 12 to 15 

per cent to attain a brightness of 70-75 per cent. The Phoenix Mill in Thailand follows the C-D-E-H-D 

bleaching obtaining 87 per cent ISO brightness. The Novgong and Cachar mills in India use 5-stage 

bleaching with C-E-H-E-D sequence. 

With the increase of the cost of bamboo, efforts are made to utilize bamboo at the maximum for 

pulping. Banthia and Misra (1968) 369 described an economical method of recovery of bamboo dust 

81

and knotter (nodes) rejects in a bamboo kraft pulp mill (wastes amount to 2-5% of the weight of 

bamboo chipped and 0.5-2.0% of the weight of pulp produced respectively), with minimum use of 

alkali and maximum yield recovery. Patnaik et al. (1984) 256 reported about the cooking of bamboo 

pin chips, which are removed as bamboo dust during the screening of chips. Studies showed that the 

small quantity of pulp obtained from separate cooking of pin chips can be mixed with normal kraft 

pulp for the manufacture of kraft paper without any significant effect on the physical and strength 

properties of paper. Mixing of up to 5 per cent of pin chips with the usual chips, the quality of pulp 

does not deteriorate much. An improved process control strategy was reported for the kraft pulping of 

Dendrocalamus strictus so as to produce pulp of uniform quality (Pravin 1987) 468 . Adaptations were 

made to black liquor evaporators so that a mixture of bamboo and hardwood pulp (at a ratio of 70:30) 

could be processed as efficiently as bamboo only (Sathyanarayana et al. 1992) 73 . 

The available information on the suitability of different species is consolidated and given in the next 

chapter. Almost all varieties of paper are made from bamboo; eg. Machine glazed (MG) kraft, kraft 

linear, wrapping and printing paper, typing paper, map litho, duplicating paper, duplex board, 

newsprint, etc(Tewari 1992) 124 (Appendix 9.B). In India, bamboo pulp meets the requirements of 

long fibred pulp for producing various kinds of paper. However, bamboo mechanical pulps/ 

emichemical high-yield pulps have limited use due to poor strength and bleachability. Concerted 

researches are under way using microbial modification of lignins in high-yield pulps. 

82

16. SPECIES SUITABILITY 

The following Tables consolidate the available information on investigations on pulping qualities of 

various species from different countries. 

1. Arundinaria alpina 

Subject of investigation Country Reference 

Storage; fibre morphology; chemical 

composition; cooking schedules; pulp and paper 

properties 

Belgian Congo 

(Africa) 

83 

Istas and Raekelboom 1962 

Pulping potential Ethiopia Cunningham and Clark 

1970 

2. Arundinaria jaunsarensis 

Cold caustic soda treatment India Khanduri and Biswas 1960 

Alkali treatment India Khanduri and Biswas 1961 

Sulphate pulp; pulping of mixture of bamboo and 

mixed hard woods; bleaching 

India Guha et al. 1966 (b,d) 

3. Arundinaria nitida 

Suitability for pulping Belgian Congo 

(Africa) 

4. Arundinaria simonii 


(Africa) 

5. Bambusa atrovirens (Syn. B. aurea) 

Istas 1958 

Istas 1958 

Suitability for rayon pulp, pulping conditions India Lele 1964 

6. Bambusa balcooa 

Pulp bleaching, yield India Guha 1961b 

Fibre morphology Bangladesh Razzaque and Siddique 

1970 

Fibre morphology Bangladesh Siddique and Chowdhury 

1982

7. Bambusa bambos (Syn. Bambusa arundinaceae) 

Pulping trials India Ahamed and Karnik 1944 

Semi-commercial pulping tests India Bhargava 1945 

Rayon grade pulping India Karnik and Sen 1948 

Fibre morphology India Ghosh and Negi1958 


Rayon grade pulping Japan Tsuji et al. 1965 

Fibre morphology; chemical composition; India Singh and Mukherjea 1965 

method of pulping; yield of pulp; product for 

which the pulp is suitable (Review) 

Nitric acid pulping India Biyani 1966 

Species introduction, suitability for pulping Ghana Kadambi and Ashong 1966 

Prehydrolysis kraft pulp yield, sulphate pulp 

yield 

- Rydholm 1966 

Pre-steaming for wax removal India Beri et al. 1967 

Chemical composition; nitric acid pulping India Biyani et al. 1967 

Pulping of flowered bamboos India Bakshi et al. 1968 

Pulping with mixed hardwoods India Bhargava et al. 1969 

Variation in fibre length India Pattanath 1972 

Suitability for pulping Indonesia Pasaribu and Silitonga 1974 

Fibre morphology; chemical composition; India Singh et al. 1976 (a, b, c) 

pulping; alkali consumption; pulp yield; beating; 

pulp strength; pulp sheet properties 

Fibre morphology; pulping characteristics India Maheshwari et al. 1976 

Chemical composition India Maheshwari et al. 1976 

Alkaline sulphite and – AQ pulping Taiwan Wang 1982 

Storage; pulping; fibre morphology; bleaching; 

beating; pulp sheet properties 

India Singh et al. 1988 

Effect of age on fibre length and pulp India Shanmughavel 1995; 

characteristics 

Shanmughavel and Francis 

1996 & 1998 

Biological pre-bleaching / biological 

delignification 

India Bajpai and Bajpai 1996 

8. Bambusa beecheyana 

Fibre morphology; chemical composition; 

cooking conditions; sulphate pulp properties 

9. Bambusa beecheyana var. pubescens 

84 

Taiwan Ku 1971 

Fibre morphology; pulp sheet properties Taiwan Ku 1971 

Kraft pulping; pulp sheet properties Taiwan Chao and Pan 1972 

Pulping process; pulp for printing paper; 

bleaching; yield; pulp properties 

Taiwan Chen et al. 1974 

Pulping suitability Taiwan Ku and Wang 1990

10. Bambusa blumeana 

Pulping qualities; bleaching Philippines FPRDI 1962 

Single– stage sulphate pulping process; threestage 

bleaching process; types of paper 

Philippines Escolano et al. 1964 

Bleaching; sulphate pulp and paper Philippines Escolano et al. 1964 

Kraft pulping qualities Philippines Semana et al. 1967 

Chemical composition (silica content); Sulphate 

pulping; beater adhesives 

Philippines Escolano and Semana 1970 

Chemical composition (silica content) Philippines Espiloy 1988 

Fibre morphology Malaysia Abdul Latif Mohamed and 

Mohamed Tamizi 1992 

11. Bambusa distegus 

Effect of age on fibre morphology China Xia and Zeng 1996 

12. Bambusa dolichoclada (Syn. Leleba dolichoclada) 

Kraft pulping Taiwan Chao and Pan 1972 

Methods of cooking; cold soda; NSSC and 

sulphate process; bleaching; pulp characteristics; 

yield; types of paper 


Methods of cooking; pulp for printing paper; 



Pulping suitability Taiwan Ku and Wang 1990 

13. Bambusa hoffii 

Chemical composition; paper making qualities Belgian Congo 

(Africa) 

14. Bambusa nutans 

85 

Istas and Hontoy 1952 


method of pulping; yield; types of paper 

(Review) 


1970 






1982

15. Bambusa oldhamii 

Mechanical pulp for Chinese “Joss” 

(ceremonial) paper 

Taiwan Perdue et al. 1961 

Cooking process; kraft pulping; fibre 

Brazil Ciaramellao 1970; 

morphology; yield; properties of pulp 

Ciaramellao and Azzini 

1971 


16. Bambusa pervariabilis 

Effect of age on chemical composition; pulping 

properties 

17. Bambusa polymorpha 

86 

China Xia 1989 


Cold soda pulping USA Gremler 

1960 

and McGovern 



(Review) 

Bleached kraft pulp Myanmar Mai- Aung et al. 1968 

Storage of pulpwood Myanmar Mai- Aung et al. 1969 


1970 






1982 

Fibre morphology; paper making properties Myanmar Wai and Murakami 1983 & 

1984 

Fibre ultra-structure; beating characteristics Myanmar Wai et al. 1985 




18. Bambusa stenostachya 

Industrial kraft pulping Formosa Chen 1958 








Rayon grade pulping China Chang and Kuo 1976 


19. Bambusa textiles 

Effect of age on chemical composition; pulping 

properties; pulp strength 

China Xia 1989

20. Bambusa tulda 


Rayon grade pulping India Anonymous 1947 


method of pulping; yield of pulp; product for 

which the pulp is suitable (Review) 


1970 


Fibre morphology; chemical composition; kraft 

pulping; types of pulp bleaching; types of paper 

India Bhola 1976 




Effect of age on chemical composition, fibre 

dimensions, pulp yield and strength 

Bangladesh Razzaque et al. 1981 


1982 

Fibre morphology; paper making properties Myanmar Wai and Murakami 1984 




Soda process; yield; pulp strength Pakistan Suleiman 1994 

21. Bambusa tuldoides 

Sulphate pulping; effect of age Brazil Mazzei et al. 1967 

Effect of age on sulphate pulping; pulp strength Brazil Mazzei and Rediko 1967 

Fibre morphology; cooking process; yield; pulp 

properties 

Brazil Ciaramellao 1970 

Pulp strength Brazil Barrichello and Foelkel 

1975 

22. Bambusa vulgaris 

Suitability for pulp Belgian Congo 

(Africa) 

Frison 1951 

Chemical composition; paper making qualities Belgian Congo 

(Africa) 


Fibre morphology; chemical composition Belgian Congo 

(Africa) 

Istas et al. 1956 

Fibre morphology; chemical composition; pulping Belgian Congo Istas 1958 

suitability 

(Africa) 

Pulping of mixture of species Belgian Congo 

(Africa) 


NSSC pulping suitability Mexico Carrasco and Salvador 1961 

Storage; fibre morphology; chemical composition; Belgian Congo Istas and Raekelboom 1962 

cooking schedules; pulp and paper properties (Africa) 

Pulping; bleaching Philippines FPRDI 1962 


Kraft pulping; effect of culm age on the paper making 

qualities 

Brazil Medina and Ciaramellao 1965 

Species distribution, suitability for pulping Ghana Kadambi and Ashong 1966 

Pulp strength; pulp blending Africa Doat 1967 

87 

(Continue next page)

Fibre morphology; effect of age on sulphate pulping; 

pulp strength 

Brazil Mazzei and Rediko 1967 

Fibre morphology; high- yield pulping Brazil Mazzei et al. 1967 


Pulp characteristics Philippines Semana et al. 1967 

Pulping with mixed hardwoods India Bhargava et al. 1969 

Cooking process; kraft pulping; fibre morphology; 

yield; pulp properties 

Brazil Ciaramellao 1970 

Pulping potential; pulp strength Brazil Cunningham and Clark 1970 

Sulphate pulping; beater adhesives; types of paper Philippines Escolano and Semana 1970 

Pulping with mixed hardwoods India Guha and Sharma 1970 

Fibre morphology Bangladesh Razzaque and Siddique 1970 

Cooking process; kraft pulping; fibre morphology; 

yield; pulp properties 

Brazil Ciaramellao and Azzini 1971 

NSSC pulping Brazil Janci et al 1971 

Suitability for pulping Indonesia Pasaribu and Silitonga 1974 

Pulping with mixed hardwoods Brazil Barichello and Foelkel 1975 

(a,b) 

Fibre morphology; chemical composition Brazil Azzini 1976 

Fibre morphology; chemical composition; pulping; 

alkali consumption; pulp yield; beating; pulp 

strength; pulp sheet properties 

India Singh et al. 1976 (a, b,c) 

Fibre morphology Bangladesh Siddique and Chowdhury 1982 

Pulp strength Brazil Gomide et al. 1985 

Effect of age on pulping Brazil Azzini et al. 1987 

Fibre morphology; chemical composition Malaysia Jamaludin and Abdul Jalil 

1991 

Fibre morphology Malaysia Abdul Latif Mohamod and 

Mohamod Tamizi 1992 

Kraft process Malaysia Jamaludin and Abdul Jalil 

1993 

Kraft pulping; yield Malaysia Jamaludin et al. 1993 

Fibre morphology; alkaline pulping; effect of active 

alkali content; effect of age on pulping 

Ghana Sekyere 1994 

Fibre morphology; chemical composition Malaysia Jamaludin et al. 1994 

23. Bambusa vulgaris var. striata 

Fibre morphology; chemical composition; Belgian Congo Istas et al. 1956; Istas 1958 

methods of cooking 

(Africa) 

Fibre morphology; chemical composition; Belgian Congo Istas and Raekelboom 1962 


(Africa) 

Kraft pulping qualities; bleaching Philippines FPRDI 1962 

Chemical composition; kraft pulping qualities; 

pulp characteristics 

Philippines Semana et al. 1967 

24. Bambusa vulgaris var. vittata 

Chlorination process; bleached kraft pulp Myanmar Mai-Aung 1961 

High –yield pulping Brazil Mazzei et al. 1967 

Effect of age on sulphate pulping; pulp strength Brazil Mazzei and Rediko 1967 

Cooking process; kraft pulping; fibre 

morphology; yield; pulp properties 

88 

Brazil Ciaramellao 1970; 

Ciaramellao and Azzini 

1971 

(Continue next page)

Rapid alkaline pulping process; yield and Brazil Barrichello and Foelkel 

strength 

1975(a, b) 

Fibre dimensions; pulp sheet properties India Singh et al. 1976 

Fibre morphology; paper-making properties; 

pulping suitability 

Myanmar Wai and Murakami 1984 

Alkaline sodium sulphite- AQ pulping China Yao and Zou 1986 

25. Cephalostachyum pergracile (Syn Schizostachyum pergracile) 

Bleachable grade pulp by chlorination process Myanmar Mai- Aung 1961 

Mixed pulping; bleached kraft pulp; pulp 

strength 

Myanmar Mai- Aung et al. 1968 





Fibre morphology; paper-making properties Myanmar Wai and Murakami 1984 

26. Dendrocalamus asper 

Suitability for pulping; pulping with mixed 

hardwoods 

27. Dendrocalamus brandisii 

89 

Indonesia Pasaribu and Silitonga 1974 

Pulp bleaching Myanmar Mai-Aung et al. 1968 

28. Dendrocalamus giganteus 

Pulp strength Africa Doat 1967 


1970 

Sulphate pulp; chemical composition India Guha et al. 1975 


1982 

Physio-chemical properties of spent liquor India Vijan and Madan 1995 

Chemical composition India Vijan and Madan 1996 

29. Dendrocalamus hamiltonii 

Semi-chemical pulping India Bhargava 1945 


yield (Review) 

India Singh and Mukherjea 1965 



alkali consumption; pulp yield; beating; pulp 

strength; pulp sheet properties 

India Singh et al. 1971, 1976 (a,b,c ) 


Chemical composition India Dhawan and Singh 1982 





Pulp strength; soda pulping Pakistan Suleiman 1994

30. Dendrocalamus latiflorus 





Magnifite process Taiwan Chao 1963 

Alkaline sulphite pulping Taiwan Chao and Pan 1963 

Kraft pulping; bleaching Taiwan Chao and Pan 1972 




High–yield pulping; chemical composition; 

utilization of residue for pulping 

Malaysia Wang and Lirn 1984 


31. Dendrocalamus longispathus 


Fibre morphology; chemical composition; Belgian Congo Istas et al. 1956 

methods of cooking; effect of age on pulp 

properties 

(Africa) 



(Review) 

India Singh and Mukherjea 1965 

Storage of pulp wood Myanmar Mai-Aung et al. 1969 


1970 


Fibre morphology; chemical composition; India Singh et al. 1976 (a, b,c) 



Effect of age on fibre morphology; chemical 

composition; pulping; pulp sheet properties 



1982 





32. Dendrocalamus membranaceus 


33. Dendrocalamus strictus 

Pulping trials India Ahmed and Karnik 1944 

Semi-commercial pulping trial India Bhargava 1945 

Rayon grade pulping (prehydrolysis sulphate India Karnik and Sen 1948; 

process) 

Karnik 1961(a ,b) 

Fibre morphology; chemical composition; Belgian Congo Istas et al. 1956 

methods of cooking; effect of age on pulping 

properties 

(Africa) 

(Continue next page) 

90

Fibre morphology; chemical composition; Belgian Congo Istas 1958 


(Africa) 

Fibre morphology India Ghosh and Negi 1958 

Bleaching; pulp sheet characteristics India Guha and Pant 1961 

NSSC pulping India Guha and Pant 1961 

Fibre morphology; chemical composition; Belgian Congo Istas and Raekelboom 1962 


(Africa) 

Dissolving grade pulp India Pande 1966 

Sulphate pulp characteristics; pulp strength; 

types of paper 

India Guha and Pant 1966 

Pulping process India Mukherjea 1967 

Chemical composition India Ingle and Bose 1969 

Pulping with mixed hardwoods India Bharagava et al. 1969 

Sulphate pulping India Banthia et al. 1969(b) 

Dissolving grade pulp; steam- vapour phase prehydrolysis 

India Pande 1970 

Pulping and sulphate pulp sheet properties India Tissot 1970 

Pulping with mixed hardwoods India Guha and Sharma 1970 



India Mukherjea and Guha 1971 

Pulping and sulphate pulp sheet properties India Singh et al. 1971 


Sulphate pulping India Guha et al. 1975 

Pulping with mixed hardwoods India Krishnamachari et al. 1975 

Alkaline pulping India Singh and Guha 1975 

Fibre morphology; chemical composition India Maheshwari et al. 1976 


pulping 

India Maheshwari et al. 1976 




Beating India Rao et al. 1978 

Kraft – AQ pulping India Maheshwari 1979 

Fibre morphology; kraft paper India Guha et al. 1980 (a) 

Pulping with mixed hardwoods; types of paper India Guha et al. 1980 (b) 

Black liquor analysis India Khanna and Swaleh 1981 

Pulp and paper-making characteristics India Maheshwari 1981 (a) 

Pulping with mixed hardwoods India Singh et al. 1981 


Vapour phase kraft pulping India Goyal and Misra 1982(b) 

Pre-hydrolysis – effect of pH India Devi et al. 1982 

Chemical composition; bleaching India Rao et al. 1983 

Chemical composition India Kapoor and Guha 1984 

Improved process control India Pravin 1987 

Chemical composition India Maheshwari and Satpathy 

1988 




Soda process; pulp strength Pakistan Suleiman 1994 

91

34. Gigantochloa aspera 

Chemical composition and papermaking Belgian Congo Istas and Hontoy 1952 

properties 

(Africa) 

Storage; fibre characteristics; chemical Belgian Congo Istas and Raekelboom 1962 


properties 

(Africa) 


Sulphate (kraft) pulping, pulp strength Philippines Monsalud 1964; Gonzalez 

and Escolano 1965 

Effect of variables in sulphate pulping Philippines Semana 1965 

Chemical composition (silica content); kraft 

pulping qualities; pulp strength 

Philippines Semana et al. 1967 

35. *Gigantochloa ater, 36. Gigantochloa apus & 37. Gigantochloa verticillata 

Fibre morphology; chemical composition; 3 


* Suitability for pulping 

Fibre morphology; chemical composition; 3methods 

of cooking; effect of age on pulping 

properties 

Fibre morphology; chemical composition; 3 


38. Gigantochloa levis 

Belgian Congo 

(Africa) 

92 

* Indonesia 

Belgian Congo 

(Africa) 

Belgian Congo 

(Africa) 


* Pasaribu and Silitonga 

1974 

Istas 1958 



Chemical composition (silica content) Japan Tsuji and Ono 1966 


39. Gigantochloa scortechinii 

Pulp beating Malaysia Jamaludin et al. 1992 

Effect of age on fibre morphology; chemical 

composition; pulp sheet properties 

40. Guadua amplexifolia 

Malaysia Abdul Latif Mohamod et 

al. 1994 

Pulping potential Mexico Cunningham and Clark 

1970 

41 Guadauaa angustifolia; 42. Guadua glomerata; 43. Guada morim ; 44. Guada 

superba 

46. Nastus amazonicus 

Chemical, semi-chemical, chemimechanical 

and mechanical pulps; pulp characteristics; types 

of paper 

Brazil Correa et al. 1977

45. Melocalamus compactiflorus 


1970 


1982 

46. Nastus amazonicus 

Chemical, semi-chemical, chemimechanical 

and mechanical pulps; pulp characteristics; types 

of paper 

47. Melocanna baccifera (Syn. Melocanna bambusoides) 

93 

Brazil Correa et al. 1977 



method of pulping; yield; product for which the 

pulp is suitable (Review) 

Rayon grade pulping Japan Oye et al. 1970 


1970 





Kraft – AQ pulping India Maheshwari 1979 

Fibre morphology; chemical composition; India Guha et al. 1980 

pulping; bleaching; pulp yield; pulp properties; 

kraft paper 






1982 

Fibre morphology; paper-making properties Myanmar Wai and Murakami 1984 




Neutral sulphite –AQ pulping; influence of age 

on kraft pulping; pulp strength 

Bangladesh Bose et al. 1998 (a,b) 

Kraft pulping Bangladesh Shah et al. 1991 

Kraft and soda – AQ pulping Bangladesh Bhowmick et al. 1991 (a, b) 

& 1992 (b) 

Chemical composition; soda process; bleaching; 


Bangladesh Karim et al. 1994 

High- yield alkaline/ kraft semi-chemical 

pulping 

Bangladesh Alam et al. 1997(a, b)

48. Ochlandra scriptoria (Syn. Ochlandra rheedii) 

Industrial experience India Singh and Mukherjea 1965 

Bleaching India Singh et al. 1977 

Kraft pulping conditions India Singh et al. 1988 

49. Ochlandra travancorica 

Pulping trials India Ahamed and Karnik 1944 



Chemical composition and paper making Belgian Congo Istas and Hontoy 1952 

properties 

Fibre dimensions; chemical composition; 3methods 

of cooking; effect of age on pulp 

properties 

94 

(Africa) 

Belgian Congo 

(Africa) 


Rayon grade pulping India Bhat and Viramani 1961 




50. Oxytenanthera abyssinica 

Pulping suitability Africa Monteiro 1949 


(Africa) 

Frison 1951 

Chemical composition; suitability for pulping Mozambique & 

Guinea 

Seabra 1954 

Pulping suitability Abyssinia (Africa) Mooney 1959 

Storage; fibre characteristics; chemical 


properties 

Belgian Congo 

(Africa) 


Species distribution, pulping suitability Ghana Kadambi and Ashong 1966 

Pulp strength Africa Doat 1967 


51. Oxytenanthera monostigma 

Fibre morphology; pulping characteristics India Maheshwari et al. 1976

52. Oxytenanthera nigrociliata (Syn. Gigantochloa rostrata) 




(Review) 

95 

India Singh and Mukherjea 

1965 






Effect of age on chemical composition; fibre 

dimensions; pulp yield and strength 






53. Oxytenanthera ritchei 

Kraft pulping; 3 cooking schedule; bleaching 


54. Phyllostachys bambusoides 

India Bhandari 1981 


Dissolving grade pulp by pre-hydrolysis and 

sulphate pulping 

Savannah, Ga Nafzier 1960 

Chemical, semi-chemical (cold soda semichemical 

and neutral sulphite) and mechanical 

pulp for newsprint 

Savannah, Ga Nafziger et al. 1961 

Newsprint India Guha and Pant 1961 

Sulphate pulp characteristics; pulp strength; 

bleaching; types of paper 

India Guha and Pant 1966 

Sulphate pulp India Guha and Pant 1972 

55. Phyllostachys edulis 


Pulping suitability; yield; economics Georgia (Soviet) Kandelaki 1976 

Utilization of residue for pulping; fibre 

dimensions; chemical composition; neutral 

sulphate – AQ process 

Taiwan Wang and Lirn 1984 

56. Phyllostachys makinoi 

Raitt process; effect of different variables; yield; 

fibre length 

Taiwan Du 1957 


3- methods of cooking; pulp for printing paper; 



Utilization of residue for pulping; fibre 

dimensions; chemical composition; neutral 

sulphate – AQ process 

Taiwan Wang and Lirn 1984 

Pulping suitability Taiwan Ku and Wang 1990

57. Phyllostachys pubescens 

Mechanical pulp for Chinese “Joss” Taiwan Perdue et al. 1961 


Alkaline sulphite – AQ pulping China Yao and Zou 1986 

Effect of age on pulping; chemical composition; 

pulping properties 



58. Phyllostachys reticulata 


Fibre morphology; Effect of age on soda pulping Japan Kitamura 1962 

Dissolving pulp Japan Tsuji et al. 1965 

59. Phyllostachys spp. (2 species) 

Chemical composition; pulping suitability; 

economics; 

60. Pleioblastus amarus 

96 

Georgia (Soviet) Kandelaki 1976 

Pulping suitability China Zhang et al. 1998 

61. Sasa albomarginata; 62. Sasa spp. 

Acid pre-hydrolysis; alkaline (soda) pulping, 

kraft and neutral sulphite semi-chemical pulping 

processes; pulp strength 

Japan Fukuyama et al. 1955 

Pulping trial Japan Fukuyama and Kawase 

1955 

Pulping of young culms Japan Kawase et al. 1986 

63. Sasa japonica 

Chemical composition and paper making 

properties 


of cooking; effect of age on pulp 

properties 


of cooking 

Belgian Congo 

(Africa) 

Belgian Congo 

(Africa) 

Belgian Congo 

(Africa) 



Istas 1958; Istas and 

Raekelboom 1962

64. Sasa kurilensis 

Chemical composition and papermaking Belgian Congo Istas and Hontoy 1952 

qualities 

(Africa) 

Fibre dimensions; chemical composition; 3- Belgian Congo Istas et al. 1956 

methods of cooking; effect of age on pulp 

properties 

(Africa) 

Fibre dimensions; chemical composition; 3- Belgian Congo Istas 1958; Istas and 

method of cooking 

(Africa) 

Raekelboom 1962 

Alkaline pulping Japan Ujiie et al. 1986 (b) 

Yield Japan Matsui 1963 

65. Sasa paniculata 


(Africa) 

66. Sasa senanensis 

97 

Istas 1958 

Per acetic acid pulping Japan Yamagishi et al. 1970 

Semi-kraft pulp Japan Ujiie and Matsumato 1967 

67. Sasa variabilis 


(Africa) 

68. Schizostachyum funghomii 

Effect of age on chemical composition, pulping 

properties 

69. Schizostachyum lumampao 

Istas 1958 



2- stage and single- stage sulphate pulping, 

bleaching; yield and papermaking properties; 


Philippines Anonymous 1966 


70. Sinocalamus latiflorus 

Fibre morphology; alkaline pulping (Raitt 

process); yield 

Taiwan Du 1957 

Optimum utilization for pulping (bamboo shoot 

– sheath pulping); neutral sulphite pulping 

India Gupta and Jain 1966 

Bleaching Taiwan Chen et al. 1973 

Rayon grade pulping China Chang and Kuo 1976

71. Teinostachyum dullooa (Syn. Neohouzeaua dullooa / Schizostachyum dullooa) 




(Review) 

Kraft pulp; optimum cooking conditions Vietnam Nepenin and Bang 1969 


1970 





1982 




72. Thyrostachys oliveri 





98 

India Singh et al. 1976 (a, b,c) 


1982 

(Species confirmation / clarification reference : Ohrnberger 1999) 114 

The following Table consolidates the available information on investigation on pulping of different 

species whose actual species details are not obtained (original articles not seen) : 

1 6 spp. Raitt process (alkaline pulping); Taiwan Du 1957 

pulping conditions; effect of 

variables; 

morphology 

pulp yield; fibre 

2 33 spp. Fibre structure China Chu and Yao 1964 

3 13 spp. Fibre morphology Philippines Monsalud 1965 

4 11 spp. Bleached 

pulping 

kraft pulp; mixed Myanmar Mai- Aung et al. 1968 

5 5 spp. 3 –cooking conditions Taiwan Chen et al. 1974 

6 13 spp. Fibre morphology; suitability for Bangladesh Siddique and Chowdhury 

pulping 

1982 

7 8 spp. Chemical composition China Xia 1989 

8 22 spp. Fibre and papermaking 

properties 

China Zhang 1995

17. APPENDICES 

APPENDIX – 1 

A. Some standard terms used in pulping process 

Total chemical : All sodium salts, expressed as Na2O 

Total alkali : NaOH + Na2S + Na2CO3 + Na2SO4, expressed as Na2O 

Active alkali : NaOH + Na2S, expressed as Na2O 

Effective alkali : NaOH + ½ Na2S, expressed as Na2O, ie, the NaOH + the portion of 

Na2S that gives NaOH when hydrolysed. 

Sulphidity : Percentage found by dividing Na2S by Na2S + NaOH, as Na2O, and 

multiplied by 100 

Causticity : Percentage found by dividing NaOH by NaOH + Na2CO3, all 

expressed as Na2O, and multiplied by 100 

Alkali recovery : Percentage found by dividing the total alkali delivered to the 

digesters minus the sodium salts in new chemical by total alkali to 

the digesters and multiplying by 100. All figures expressed as Na2O. 

Green liquor : Liquor made by dissolving the smelt from the recovery furnace 

(recovered chemicals) in water and weak liquor preparatory to 

causticizing. 

White liquor : Liquor made by causticizing the green liquor; the cooking liquor 

used in the digesters 

Black liquor : Liquor recovered from digesters 

Causticizing : Making of white liquor from green liquor by addition of slaked lime 

B. Explanation of some general terms used in describing pulp strength properties 

Burst strength - is a complex function of tensile strength at various angles to the 

machine direction of the paper together with stretch of the 

paper in these various directions. 

Folding strength - is a very complicated function, involving tensile strength, stretch 

modulus and toughness or brittleness of the fibres. 

Stiffness - is a direction reflection of the stiffness of the individual fibres 

assuming an adequate amount of inter-fibre bonding and a standard 

density level in the paper. 

99


A. Proximate chemical analysis, fibre dimensions and pulp strength of some cellulose raw 

materials used in papermaking (all Indian fibres) 

Particulars Bamboo Pine Eucalypt Bagasse Rice straw Kenaf 

Approximate analysis : 

Lignin % 

Pentosans % 

Alpha cellulose % 

Ash % 

Fibre dimension : 

Fibre length (ave.) mm 

Fibre diameter (ave.) µm 

Unbleached pulp strength : 

Initial freeness ml C.S.F. 

Final freeness m1C.S.F. 

Breaking length m. 

Burst factor 

Tear factor 

Double-folds 

Sheet density g/cc 

Pulping process 

26 

15 

40 

3.0 

2.7 

15 

690 

250 

5700 

42 

110 

200 

0.6 

Kraft 

27 

9 

41 

0.3 

3.6 

40 

700 

300 

6900 

57 

160 

600 

0.68 

Kraft 

100 

25 

20 

44 

0.5 

1.2 

24 

650 

250 

6500 

50 

75 

320 

0.69 

Kraft 

Initial freeness : m1 C.S.F. milli-litre Canadian freeness. 

Final freeness : m1 C.S.F. 

Source : Podder (1979) 

18 

20 

31 

4.5 

1.7 

17 

590 

250 

5100 

34 

60 

38 

0.66 

Soda 

12 

23 

32 

15 

1.1 

9 

400 

200 

4300 

28 

50 

11 

0.63 

Soda 

18 

20 

38 

2.5 

2.0 

15 

550 

250 

7000 

55 

95 

400 

0.72 

Kraft 

B. Composition of raw materials used in paper industry. (All values are expressed as 

percentage on dry basis) 

Raw materials Cellulose 

(Cross& 

Bevan) 

Pentosan Lignin Alcohol 

Benzene 

Extractables 

Ash Silica 

(SiO2) 

Bamboo 57.0 14.0 25 2.0 2.0 1-1.5 

Rice straw 51.0 22.0 12 4.0 11.0 4-8 

Bhutang grass (stems) 39.3 28.4 22.5 2.1 33.9 1.6 

Khagre grass (stems) 36.5 29.0 23.3 4.4 2.7 0.9 

Jute (stick) 56.0 20.0 21.0 1.0 2.0 - 

Jute 70.0 15.0 11.0 1.0 3.0 - 

Sisal hemp 77.0 13.0 6.0 1.0 3.0 - 

Bagasse 50.0 25.0 18.0 3.0 4.0 1-1.5 

Sal 56.0 13.4 24.9 6.0 1.0 - 

Salai 50.7 13.0 27.3 4.3 1.8 0.29 

Casuarina 56.7 19.2 23.2 3.4 0.8 - 

Pine 61.0 11.0 26.0 1.0 1.0 0.1-0.3 

Eucalyptus hybrid 54.0 14.1 30.9 - 0.4 0.03 

Source : Podder (1979)

APPENDIX 3 

A. Proximate chemical analysis of the two important Indian bamboo species 

(Dendrocalamus strictus and Bambusa bambos (Syn. B. arundinaceae)) 

Chemical constituents (%) D. strictus B. bambos 

Cellulose (Cross & Bevan) 60.00 57.56 

Lignin 23.89 3.09 

Pentosans 15.84 19.62 

Cold water solubles 7.85 5.95 

Alcohol- benzene solubles 1.80 1.22 

Other solubles 1.47 0.82 

Ash 1.8 3.26 

Silica 0.47 1.79 

1% caustic soda solubles 23.18 19.35 

10% caustic potash solubles 30.52 40.10 

Source : Nair (1970) 

B. Variation of fibre and tissue characteristics of some Indian bamboos 

Sl. 

No. 

Species Mean fibre 

length 

(mm) 

101 

Mean fibre 

diameter 

(µ m) 

Mean luman 

Diameter 

(µ m) 

Parenchyma 

(%) 

1 Bambusa bambos 2.24 16 4 21.7 

2 Bambusa nutans 2.40 15 3 20.6 

3 Bambusa polymorpha 2.53 16 4 22.4 

4 Bambusa tulda 2.10 15 5 18.4 

5 Bambusa vulgaris 2.02 15 5 20.0 

6 Cephalostachyum pergracile 2.20 16 4 18.3 

7 Dendrocalamus hamiltonii 2.40 13 3 26.6 

8 Dendrocalamus longispathus 2.70 15 3 17.5 

9 Dendrocalamus strictus 2.45 14 2 21.2 

10 Melocanna baccifera 2.78 15 3 19.5 

11 Oxytenanthera nigrociliata 2.43 15 3 18.7 

12 Thyrostachys olivery 2.31 15 3 19.5 

Source : Singh (1989)

A. Survey of pulping processes 


Process / Pulp type Chemical treatment Mechanical Wood+ Yield 

treatment 

(%) 

Mechanical pulping 80 - 99 

Stone grinding * 

Refiner pulping 

** 

** 

Groundwood 

(SGW) 

Steamed groundwood 

Pressure ground- 

wood (PGW) 

Refiner mechanical 

pulp (RMP) 

Pressurized refiner 

mechanical pulp 

(PRMP) 

Thermo-mechanical 

pulp (TMP) 

Asplund pulp 

None 

Steam 

None 

None 

None 

102 

Grindstone 

Grindstone 

Grindstone 

(pressure) 

Disk refiner 

Disk refiner 

(pressure) 

S 

S 

S 

93- 99 

80- 90 

Steam 

Disk refiner 

(pressure) 

S 91-98 

Steam 

Disk refiner S 80-90 

Chemimechanical and Chemi-thermomechanical pulping 65 - 97 

Stone grinding * Chemigroundwood 

(CGW) 

Refiner pulping Chemi-refiner 

mechanical pulp 

(CRMP) 

Chemi-thermomechanical 

pulp 

(CTMP) 

Neutral sulphite 

Or 

Acidic sulphite 

Or 

Na2S + NaOH 

NaOH or NaHSO3 

Or 

Alkaline sulphite 

Or 


Steam + Na2SO3 

+ NaOH 

S 

S 

Grindstone S/ H 

Disk refiner 

Disk refiner 

(pressure) 

S/ H 

S/ H 

S/ H 

S/ H 

93-98 

80-92 

80-90 

85-90 

80-90 

65-97 

Semichemical pulping 65 - 92 


(NSSC-pulp) 

Cold soda 

Alkaline sulphite 

Sulphate 

Soda 

Green liquor 

Nonsulphur 

Na2SO3 + Na2CO3 

or NaHCO3 

NaOH 

Na2CO3, Na2S, NaOH 

NaOH + Na2S 

NaOH 

Na2S + Na2CO3 

Na2CO3 + NaOH 

Disk refiner 

Disk refiner 

Disk refiner 

Disk refiner 

Disk refiner 

Disk refiner 

Disk refiner 

H 

H 

H/ S 

H/ S 

H 

H 

H 

65-90 

85-92 

80-90 

75-85 

65-85 

65-85 

65-85 

High-yield chemical pulping 55 - 70 

Kraft 

Sulphite 

Na2S + NaOH 


(Ca, Na, Mg)or 

Bisulphite (Na, Mg) 

Disk refiner 

Disk refiner 

S/ H 

S 

55-65 

55-70 

(continue next page)

Full chemical pulping 30 - 60 

Alkaline pulping Kraft (+ AQ) 

Sulphite pulping 

Kraft (Polysulphide) 

Soda 

Soda – AQ 

Soda – oxygen, twostage 


Bisulphite 


Magnefite 

Multi-stage sulphite 

** Alkaline sulphite 

Dissolving pulping Acidic sulphite 

Prehydrolysis kraft 

NaOH + Na2S 

(+ AQ) 

(NaOH + Na2S)x 

NaOH 

NaOH + AQ 

NaOH, oxygen 


(Ca, Na, Mg, NH3) 

Bisulphite 

(Na, Mg, NH3) 


Mg- bisulphite 

Na2SO3 + 

NaHSO3/ SO2 

or 

NaHSO3 + 

SO2/ Na2CO3 

Na2SO3 + NaOH 


(Ca, Na) 

Na2S + NaOH 

after prehydrolysis 

* Wood used in the form of bolts. All the other processes use chips. 

+ Wood mainly used (S: softwood, H: hardwood) 

** Not commercially established 

Source : Fengel and Wegener (1984) 

103 

Mild to none 

None 

None 

Mild to none 

Disk refiner 

Mild to none 

Mild to none 

Mild to none 

Mild to none 

None 

None 

None 

None 

S/ H 

S/ H 

H 

H 

H 

S 

(no pine) 

S/ H 

S/ H 

S/ H 

S/ H 

S/ H 

H/ S 

H/ S 

40-55 

45-60 

40-55 

45-55 

45-60 

45-55 

45-60 

45-60 

45-60 

45-55 

35-42 

30-35

B. Non-conventional pulping procedures 

Procedure Process data 

Nitric acid pulping HNO3 (1-60%); 15-150 0 C; 0.25-3h; extraction 

with aqueous NH4OH and /or NaOH 

Hydrotropic pulping Na-m-xylene sulfonate, Na-p-toluene sulfonate, 

Na-benzonate, Na-salicylate etc. in H2O or 

organic solvents; 150-170 0 C; 0.5-6h 

Organosolv puling Ethanol/ H2O (1:1); 180-215 0 C; 20-60 min 

Methanol/ H2O (1:1); 150-210 0 C; 30-180 min, 2 

steps alkaline medium 

Butanol/ H2O or Phenol/ H2O (1:1); 180-205 0 C; 

2-12h 

Alkali- methanol pulping 4% NaOH in 40% methanol; 140-160 0 C; 

30-120 min 

Phenol pulping Phenol (+ H2O, HCl); 160-170 0 C; 3-4 h 

Holopulping Defibration of alkali-impregnated chips; 

ClO2 –delignification; extraction with alkali; 

disk refining 

Acetic acid pulping CH3COOH/ conc. HCl/ acetone (7:1:2); 70 0 C; 

3- 6 h 

DMSO pulping DMSO/ H2SO4 (99:1), V/ V); 130- 160 0 C 

NO2/ SO2/ H2S or Cl2 in DMSO or DMF; 

→ 140 0 C; 0.5- 3 h 

DMSO/ EDA, DMSO/ hydrazine; 

DMSO/ CH3COOH, H2SO4 or HCl; 

145-176 0 C; 20 min- 3 h 

NO2 delignification NO2 (2-3%) in coal oil or CCl4; room temp.; 

10-30 min; extraction with 1% NaOH 

Vapour- phase SO2- process Saturated SO2 vapour; → 110 0 C 

Explosion- CO2- process Aqueous CO2 –solution; 160- 200 0 C; 50 bar; 

pressure reduction defibration 

Autohydrolysis delignification Autohydrolysis (175- 220 0 C); 4- 120 min; also 

in the presence of aromatic compounds (e.g. 2naphtol); 

extraction with dioxane/ H2O; 

defibration 

Ketone delignification Acetone, methyl- ethyl ketone; cyclohexanone 

or ketone- ammonia mixtures; 175- 210 0 C; 60- 

150 min 

Formaldehyde pulping HCHO (25-50%); 130-200 0 C; 5-200 min 

Source : Fengel and Wegner (1984) 

104


A. Alkali consumption, Kappa No., unbleached pulp yield and chemical composition of 

some Indian bamboos and their pulps 

Sl. 

No. 

Species 

Caustic 

soda 

used in 

(%) 

Kappa 

number 

Pulp yield (%) Chemical composition (%) 

Unscreened Screened Lignin 

in 

bamboo 

105 

Lignin 

in 

pulp 

Pentosan 

in 

bamboo 

Pentosan 

in 

pulp 

1 Bambusa bambos 21 27.4 52.1 51.7 24.2 3.1 20.8 16.2 

2 Bambusa nutans 20 24.3 54.7 54.5 21.7 2.8 20.0 16.8 

3 Bambusa 

polymorpha 

20 27.2 44.4 43.4 24.7 3.0 18.5 17.0 

4 Bambusa tulda 21 28.2 54.8 54.4 23.1 4.7 18.1 11.3 

5 Bambusa 

vulgaris 

22 24.3 44.4 43.8 22.9 3.6 21.0 17.6 

6 Cephalostachyum 

pergracile 

20 28.2 54.5 52.8 24.9 4.3 18.4 15.9 

7 Dendrocalamus 

hamiltonii 

19 27.4 56.6 54.2 22.4 3.7 16.9 16.1 


longispathus 

20 25.2 48.9 48.4 25.0 3.9 18.6 15.8 


strictus 

22 28.0 51.0 50.9 26.0 3.0 23.2 15.3 

10 Melocanna 

baccifera 

25 25.0 43.9 43.8 27.0 4.1 19.6 15.5 

11 Oxytenanthera 

nigrociliata 

23 27.9 52.0 51.8 22.6 3.8 16.2 16.7 

12 Thyrostachys 

olivery 

22 27.2 48.9 47.0 20.9 3.0 18.5 17.0 

Source : Singh (1989) 

B. Characteristics of unbleached bamboo cold-soda pulp 

Characteristics Value 

Kappa number 158 

Brightness (% ISO) 19.40 

Yellowness (%) 53.80 

Ash (%) 2.50 

Silica (%) 1.20 

Solubility (%) 

(a) in cold water 

(b) in 0.1N NaOH 

2.74 

11.36 

Klason lignin (corrected for ash) (%) 23.31 

Acid- soluble lignin (%) 0.90 

Holocellulose (%) 71.14 

Pentosans (%) 15.60 

Source : Islam et al. (1989)

C. Characteristics of rayon grade pulp produced from bamboo at M/s. 

Gwalior Rayons Silk Manufacturing Company, Kerala, India and that 

imported from Alaska 

Characteristics Indian 

bamboo 

rayon pulp 

106 

Imported rayon pulp 

from Alaska 

(Coniferous softwoods) 

Alpha cellulose (%) 95.30 93.03 

Hemicelluloses (%) 4.62 4.05 

Soda solubles 

(solubility in 7.14% NaOH 

(%) 

6.87 11.18 

Ether solubles (%) 0.21 1.3 

Swelling index 6.6 6.42 

Ash (%) 0.039 0.187 

SiO2 (%) 0.011 0.0048 

Fe (ppm) 14 15 

CaO (%) 0.003 0.025 

Mg (%) Traces Traces 

Fluidity (cp) 35.6 17.3 

Copper number 0.7 1.4 

Size (mm) 793 x 595 760 x 600 

Basic weight (gm/m 2 ) 400 ------ 

Source : Nair (1970)

A. Bleaching chemicals 

Industrially important Chlorine 

Sodium hypochlorite 

Calcium hypochlorite 

Chlorine dioxide 

Hydrogen peroxide 

Sodium peroxide 

Oxygen 

Less important or not 

commercially applied 


Oxidizing chemicals Reducing chemicals 

Ozone 

Sodium chlorite 

Peracetic acid 

Chlorine monoxide 

Thioglycolic acid 

Hydrogen 

Potassiumpermanganate 

Cl2 

NaOCl 

Ca(OCl)2 

ClO2 

H2O2 

Na2O2 

O2 

O3 

NaClO2 

CH3CO3H 

Cl2O 

CH2SHCOOH 

H2 

KMnO4 

107 

Sodium dithionite 

Zinc dithionite 

Sodium bisulphite 

Sulphur dioxide 

Sodium borohydride 

Calcium dithionite 

Aluminium 

dithionite 

B. General conditions / Parameters governing bleaching processes 

Na2S2O4 

ZnS2O4 

NaHSO3 

SO2 

NaBH4 

CaS2O4 

Al2(S2O4)3 

Consistency (pounds of fibre in 100 pound of suspension, determined by the specific stage and 

type of equipment used for the stage); chemical addition (the percentage of chemical added, 

based on the amount of pulp in the stage); chemical/ bleach consumption (the percentage of 

active chemical consumed, based on the amount of chemical added); chemical concentration (the 

amount of chemical per given volume of liquid in the stage, which is controlled by the chemical 

requirement of the pulp and the consistency at which the particular stage operates); pH 

(determined by conditions of reactions); temperature (detected by the type of reaction and the 

conditions of the state); and time (determined by the type of reaction and the conditions for the 

particular stage).

C. The symbols used to describe the sequences used in multi-stage bleaching of pulps 

Stage Symbol Chemicals 

Chlorination C Cl2 

Alkaline extraction E NaOH 

Hypochlorite H NaOCl + NaOH 

Chlorine dioxide D ClO2 

Peroxide P or P/ E H2O2 + NaOH or 

108 

Na2O2 + NaOH 

Oxygen O O2 + NaOH 

Cupriethylenediamine Cu En2 [Cu(H2NCH2CH2NH2)4](OH)2 

Chlorination with small amounts of ClO2 CD Cl2 + (ClO2) 

Sequential bleaching without intermediate 

washing 

D/C 

C/H 

D/H 

ClO2/Cl2 

Cl2/NaoCl+NaOH 

ClO2/NaOCl+NaOH 

Bleaching with a mixture of Cl2 and ClO2 C + D Cl2 + ClO2 

Chlorination at low concentration (C) Cl2 

Gas-phase bleaching Cg 

Ozone Z O3 

Dg 

Cl2 

ClO2 

Acid A e.g. CH3CO3H

D. Common industrial bleaching sequences 

SULPHITE AND BISULPHITE 

3stages 

C-E-H C-E-H-H 

PULPS 

4- stages 5- stages 3- stages 

(semibleached) 

C-E-H-D 

C-E-D-H 

C-C-E-H 

C-H-E-H 

H-C-E-H 

C-E-D-D/H 

C+D-E-H-D 

E-C-H-D 

C-E-H-D-H 

C-C-E-H-H 

Source : Rydholms (1965) 

C-E-H 

D/C-O-D 

4- stages 

(partly 

semibleached) 

C-E-H-D 

C-E-H-P 

E. Non-established bleaching sequences 

C-E-H-H 

C-H-E-H 

C-D-E-D 

O-C-E-H 

O-C-E-D 

O-D-E-D 

O-D-O-D 

Reduced chlorine application (C)-P-H 

(C)-P-D-H 

(C)-P-H-D-H 

Peroxide replacing chlorine P-D-P 

P-D-H 

P-H-H 

P-H-D 

D-P-D 

P-H-D-H 

P-D-P-D 

Oxygen bleaching O-P 

O-D 

O-H 

O-P-D 

O-D-P 

O-C-P 

O-H-P 

O-C-P-D 

O-D-P-D 

O-Cg-E-Dg 

O- Dg-E- Dg 

Ozone bleaching Z-E-P 

Z-E-Z 

Z-E-Z-P 

Peracetic acid P-A-P 

A-E-A-E-A 

Source : Fengel and Wegener (1984) 

109 

KRAFT PULPS 

5- stages 6- stages 7- stages 

C-E-H-P-D 

C-E-H-D-P 

C-E-H-E-H 

C-E-D-E-D 

C-E-D-P-D 

C-E-H-E-D 

C-H-D-E-D 

D-E-D-E-D 

C-C/H-E-H-H 

C-H-E-D-E-D 

C-E-H-D-E-D 

C-E-H-E-H-D 

C-E-H-D-P-D 

C-E-H-E-D-P 

C+D-E-H-D-E-D 

C-E-H-D-E-D 

O-C-E-D-E-D 

O-C+D-E-D-E-D 

O-D-E-D-E-D 

O-C-D-E-H-D 

C-H-H-D-E-D- 

P

APPENDIX - 7 

Mean values of strength properties of unbeaten and beaten pulp of some Indian bamboo 

species 

Sl. 

No. 

Species 

Breaking length (m) Burst factor Tear factor 

Unbeaten Beaten Unbeaten Beaten Unbeaten Beaten 

1 Bambusa bambos 2240 6750 8.0 41.3 54.5 122.9 

2 Bambusa nutans 1430 7560 4.9 42.8 39.2 166.9 

3 Bambusa polymorpha 1990 6320 8.0 51.3 76.4 218.7 

4 Bambusa tulda 1060 7460 5.2 50.0 49.0 181.2 

5 Bambusa vulgaris 2070 7260 9.1 50.9 88.2 134.9 

6 Cephalostachyum 

pergracile 


hamiltonii 


longispathus 

1730 7550 5.1 47.3 36.1 149.8 

2620 8320 10.2 53.3 133.9 194.7 

1450 7360 4.2 52.0 70.1 164.7 

9 Dendrocalamus strictus 1440 6470 4.9 44.7 48.5 190.4 

10 Melocanna baccifera 820 5480 2.9 40.0 32.0 210.7 


nigrociliata 

1580 6730 7.0 49.0 31.7 168.0 

12 Thyrostachys olivery 1160 5800 2.5 48.4 52.6 164.1 

Source : Singh (1989) 

110


Suitability of some Indian bamboo species for pulp and paper 

Sl. 

No. Species 

Average 

fibre length 

(mm) 

Method of pulping 

111 

Bleached pulp 

yield (%) 

Product for which the 

pulp is suitable 

1 Bambusa bambos 2.75 Kraft (sulphate) 39.0 Writing and printing paper 

Water prehydrolysis 

sulphate 

28.3 Rayon 

2 Bambusa polymorpha 3.19 Kraft 41.3 Writing and printing paper 

3 Bambusa tulda 2.98 Kraft 41.0 Writing and printing paper 

Mechanical - Newsprint, cheap paper and 

board 


hamiltonii 

3.36 Kraft 42.5 Writing and printing paper 


longispathus 


6 Dendrocalamus strictus 3.06 Kraft 47.2 Writing, printing, wrapping 

and greaseproof paper 


27.3 Cellulose derivatives and 

sulphate 

viscose rayon 

Mechanical - Newsprint, cheap paper and 

board, pressed board 

NSSC 44.0 Writing, printing and 

7 Melocanna baccifera 

(Syn. M. bambusoides) 

2.72 Kraft 41.8 

wrapping paper 

Writing and printing paper 


sulphate 

32.2 Rayon 

8 Ochlandra 

travancorica 



sulphate 

32.0 Rayon 


nigrociliata 


Source : Nair (1970)

A. Grades of paper 

Sl 

No. 


Type of paper Made from Description, Properties & Remarks 

1 Writing papers 

-Ordinary 

- High grade 

(bond and ledger 

paper) 

- Cheap quality 

- Laid papers 

- Wove papers 

- Water mark paper 

Chemical pulps of 

wood, bamboo or 

grasses. 

From rags. 

A mixture of 

chemical pulps and 

ground wood pulp 

For writing purposes, records, letterheads, business forms 

etc. 

For document paper - High strength, stiffness, 

permanence, and durability for repeated handling, 

resistance to the penetration and spreading of ink, 

brightness, and cleanliness are the desired properties. . 

Good appearance, opacity, surface finish, good ink 

receptivity, capability to withstand action of eraser are 

also desired. The principal uses of bond paper are for 

letterhead stationary, advertising pieces, announcements, 

leases, deeds, writs, judgements and other legal 

documents, certificates and insurance policies. 

Paper with ribbed like appearance; produced by the use 

of a dandy roll on which the wires are laid side by side. 

Do not have the wire marks; the dandy is covered with a 

wire cloth during preparation. 

A design is soldered on the dandy roll. The raised portion 

of the design lightly touch the wet web of paper on the 

fordrinier wire at a suitable place between the suction 

boxes, making the paper slightly thinner at the places of 

contact and thus producing the water mark. 

112

2 Printing papers 

- Newsprint 

- Ordinary paper 

- Low quality paper 

- Coated book 

papers 

(machine-coated 

papers) 

- Uncoated book 

papers 

- Bible paper 

Ground wood with 

small amount of 

chemical wood pulp 

Chemical pulps from 

wood, grasses, 

bamboo etc. 

Groundwood pulp 

mixed with chemical 

puls 

Soda pulp 

Cotton or linen rags 

Printing papers are soft- sized since oil-based inks are 

used for printing. Requires good opacity so that the 

printed matter on one side of the paper is not discernible 

from the other side. Requires good finish and more 

absorbent towards printing ink. This is achieved by using 

the filler, china clay 

For newspapers; low cost magazines, paper bound books, 

catalogs, directories and for general commercial printing. 

Desires an even, uniform formation and high opacity. Do 

not have high whiteness and tend to turn yellow when 

expose to light and after long aging. These papers are 

bulky and are receptive to printing ink. Cheapness and 

necessary strength are of prime concerns. Halftone 

illustrations should be recognizable. The paper is 

machine finished and has little or no mineral loading. 

Durability is not a concern. 

Suitable for graphic arts; for use as book papers, for best 

reproduction of fine halftone illustrations. With 

uniformly smooth surface, with good ink receptivity, 

have high brightness and gloss, and be capable of folding 

without cracking. 

Uncoated book paper is available in four finishes: 

Antique or egg shell – made from slightly beaten stock, 

the sheet is only lightly calendared to provide a degree of 

surface smoothness while preserving the antique or egg 

shell appearance. 

Machine finish – has a medium –smooth surface for this 

finish from a calendar stock at the dry end of the 

machine. Use for books, catalogs, circulars, and other 

matter using line etchings and for halftone illustrations 

upto 100-line screen. Machine finish book is a relatively 

inexpensive general utility paper. 

English finish – a step higher in the book paper scale; by 

a higher degree of beaten stock. 

Supercalendared – is the smoothest surface that can be 

obtained without coating. It is used for books, brochures 

and magazines where halftone printing in the range of 

100-120 line screen is required. 

Light weight, thin, strong, opaque sheets for such books 

as bibles, dictionaries, and encyclopaedias, which require 

minimum bulk. Bible papers are pigmented (loaded) with 

such pigments as titanium dioxide and barium sulphate 

and contain long fibres and artificial bonding agents. 

113

3 Wrapping or bag 

papers 

- Kraft paper 

(multi wall bags) 

- Notion bags 

- Other bags 

- Fancy bags 

4 Sanitary papers 

(Absorbent 

papers) 

- Water leaf 

5 Wall paper 

(Hanging paper) 

- Grade 1 

- Grade 2 

Unbleached light 

brown kraft pulp 

Kraft pulp from 

coniferous species 

Mixture of several 

pulps 

Sulphite pulp 

Various proportions 

of sulphite and 

bleached kraft pulp. 

Bleached chemical 

wood pulps and 

small amount of 

groundwood pulp. 

Major portion is 

groundwood pulp 

with small quantity 

of sulphite pulp. 

Requires strength, toughness and playability. The colour, 

formation and surface are of secondary importance only. 

Machine glazed for paper bag 

Requires outstanding tensile and tearing strength. Kraft 

wrapping is sized to retard wetting when exposed to 

water. Wet strength was imparted with special resins. For 

multi wall bags (for storing or transport of cement, 

shipment of bulk materials etc.) require higher strength 

properties. In some multi wall bags an inner lining of 

specially treated paper was used to provide. Grocer’s 

bags are usually made of kraft paper. 

For packaging light materials 

Requires water resistant papers with high wet strength. 

For food packaging 

Little refining of the stock to preserve a soft, bulky, 

absorbent sheet; further softened by machine creping. 

Sanitary papers include : 

Towelling, facial tissue, napkins, etc. 

Because of the soft bulky texture of sanitary papers, they 

are relatively weak. To improve wet strength, they are 

treated with resins. The plastic nature of paper fibres 

when slightly moist permits the reproduction of surface 

patterns by embossing to a remarkable degree in paper 

napkins. 

Absorbent papers, which are not sized. eg. blotting 

papers, cigarette papers, artificial leather paper, and 

vulcanised fibre etc. 

The essential properties are softness, playability, 

resistance to water, maximum bulk and minimum weight. 

114

6 Speciality papers : 

- Currency paper 

- Cheque paper 

- Cigarette paper 

- Blotting paper 

- Manifold paper 

- Grease proof 

paper 

- Glassine paper 

- Cartridge paper 

(Drawing paper) 

- Insulating paper 

Pulp from new rags 

Pure flax, or linen 

fibre, hemp fibre and 

ramie pulps 

Rags, linters, 

chemical or 

mechanical wood 

pulps or mixture of 

these depending 

upon the quality 

required. 

Chemical wood 

pulps which are 

highly hydrated in 

the process of 

beating 

Chemical wood pulp 

which are highly 

beaten (hydrated). 

Kraft pulp or a 

mixture of karft and 

jute pulp. Bamboo 

kraft pulp is used for 

this purpose in 

Indian paper mills. 

Tub sized with animal glue. Require high tensile strength, 

high folding endurance, and resistance to bear. It has also 

special features to protect against counterfeiting. Use for 

printing paper currency, Government securities etc. 

Not fully sized paper and have surface which readily 

comes away when strapped with a knife or wetted with an 

ink-remover. Some of this contains chemicals which 

change in colour when ink-remover is applied, leaving a 

characteristic stain. Used for cheque forms and similar 

documents on which the writing is liable to be tampered. 

The paper must be thin but opaque and must have no 

characteristic smell or taste on burning. Opacity is 

secured by addition of filler such as calcium carbonate 

which gives a good white appearance and helps to 

promote uniform burning of the paper. 

This is an unsized paper used to absorb excess ink from 

freshly written letters, manuscripts etc. The paper is 

aurous, bulky and of little strength. 

This a typical bond paper in light basis weights. Finish 

and porosity are important properties in this type of 

paper. Used for copies by interleaving with carbon paper. 

Impervious to oil or grease. Use for wrapping greasy food 

products. High hydration imparts greaseproofness to the 

paper, which has comparatively few interconnecting 

pores between the fibres. 

This is a dense glazed greaseproof paper. The 

greaseproof paper is put through a special super-calendar 

with a number of steam-heated rolls, so as to make it 

more smooth and transparent. When waxed, this paper 

becomes almost impervious to air and vapours used as 

wrapper for food products, tobacco, chemicals and also in 

the manufacture of bags, envelops, book covers etc 

Used for making cases for cartridges require to be very 

strong 

Special properties may be given to these papers by 

mixing various additives into the pulps. These are divided 

into three classes : 

Insulating materials – such as floor lining felts, roofing 

felts, creep wadding, sheathing, and wallboards. 

Electrical insulating materials – include cable paper, 

condenser tissue vulcanised fibre, vegetable parchment, 

and paper impregnated with shellac, paraffin or bakelite 

Sound insulating materials – such as acoustical board. 

and paper impregnated with shellac, paraffin or bakelite 

Sound insulating materials – such as acoustical board. 

115

7 Bristol 

8 Paperboards 

- Boxboards 

- Container boards 

- Paperboard 

specialities 

- Duplex board 

- Triplex board 

Various 

combinations of 

chemical wood pulp 

Wood, straw, waste 

paper pulps or a 

combination of these 

materials 

Sulphite and 

sulphate pulps 

The top and bottom 

layers are made of 

rag, wood, or 

bamboo pulp or a 

mixture of any of 

these pulps, while 

the middle layer is 

of the groundwood 

or waste paper pulp. 

Bristol refers to a group of stiff, heavy papers with 

thicknesses ranging from 0.15mm upward. The stock is 

beaten to a medium degree and usually well sized to 

prevent penetration of moisture. Used for punch cards in 

tabulating and sorting machines. 

Paperboard refers products of 0.30mm or more in 

thickness made from pulp. 

Used for such products as food board, food trays, plates, 

and paper boxes / cartons for packaging. A wide range of 

properties, including particular strength, bending and 

scoring characteristics and a suitable surface for printing, 

can be built into this grade of paper. Resistance to air, 

water, fire, and oil can be obtained by appropriate 

treatments in the manufacturing process. 

For the manufacture of corrugated and solid fibre 

shipping containers 

Include such items as binder’s board, electrical 

pressboard, and building boards 

This is a paperboard made in two layers, the two sides 

being of two different colours or the layers may be from 

two different grades of stocks. This is made on a paper 

machine. The paper is used for cover papers, boxboard 

etc. Good tear resistance and playability are required. The 

papers are hard sized and are of high machine finish. 

Sometimes a high super-calendar finish was used to give 

This a paperboard made in three different layers pressed 

together. Made on a cylinder mould machine in the same 

way as duplex board. This is machine glazed and is used 

as cover paper 

116

B. Types of commercial papers/ paper boards produced in India from bamboos 

Bamboo pulp is reported to be currently used for the production of the following types of paper/ 

paperboards in India. 

1. Printing paper 

(a). White printing paper / Coloured printing paper : Hard sized paper of all kinds are 

suitable for writing. But an even paper of good surface is essential, generally machine 

finished. 

(b). Imitation art paper : This is a highly finished printing paper manufactured by the 

addition of heavy percentage of China clay to the pulp and water finished or super-calenderer 

to give it a surface, opacity and absorbency, may be white or coloured. 

(c). Offset printing paper : This type of paper is suitable for the offset printing process. It is 

normally made from bamboo or grass stock and may contain some amount of rag and wood 

pulp. It may be white or coloured. 

(d). M.G. poster paper : A variety of paper which has been machine-glazed (M.G), suitable 

for printing posters, labels, etc.; may be white/ coloured. 

2. Writing papers 

(a). Azure laid / Ledger paper : An account book paper usually pale blue in colour and with 

laid lines. 

(b). Airmail / Manifold paper : Lightweight well sized writing paper of a substance not 

greater than 35g/m 2 used for copying with carbon paper. Airmail papers are similar to 

manifold papers but are lighter in weight. 

(c). Bond paper : A strong, durable, high class, writing paper with good surface 

characteristics and erasing quality of substance above 50 g/m 2 . 

3. Packing and wrapping paper 

(a). Match paper : Coloured wrapping paper normally machine glazed (M.G) and used for 

the manufacture and packing of matchboxes. Normally made from bamboo pulp with a fairly 

large proportion of waste paper (usually blue or green). 

(b). Common wrapping paper : Cheaper grades or wrapping papers made from bamboo, 

grass, rags and waste as well as recovered fibre. May be machine glazed or machine finished. 

4. Paper boards 

(a). Duplex/Triplex board : Two plyboard manufactured wholly from bamboo and bagasse 

or with one ply made an admixture of bamboo and bagasse while the other ply is made from 

waste paper/ mechanical pulp; may be white or coloured or may have two different colours in 

117

either ply. Board with three or more piles, has inferior furnish in the middle layer; may be 

white or coloured or may have different colours in either ply. 

(b). Ticket board : Thick paste boards made from ticket middles or white mechanical 

bamboo pulp middles and white or coloured facing papers of mechanical pulp or sometimes 

coated with white or tinted coated liners are employed and used for show cards and window 

tickets, price tags, season tickets, etc. 

(c). Pulp board / Boxboard : White and tinted, made from bamboo pulp on an ordinary 

Fourdrinier machine, well sized and finished in matt, super-calendared or water finishes in 

two sheets. Used for all kinds of general printing work such as tickets, cards, menu cards, 

price tags, etc. 

(d). Post card /Board : Pulp boards are manufactured in one or two plys (simplex board). 

The term is used to distinguish it from paste board which consists of two or more layers 

pasted together. It is usually made from bamboo or grass pulp and may be coloured or white. 

It includes postcard boards and Bristol boards. 

(e). Tag boards : Tag boards are mad from strong stuff furnishes of bamboo pulp. The 

boards must be even, hard sized and well rolled to give a good writing surface and lie 

perfectly flat for accurate ruling, printing and cutting. Made in buff, white and tints for card 

index systems in single thickness, as pasted boards bend and split at the corners with frequent 

handling. 

5. Newsprint 

Bamboo chemical pulp mixed with mechanical hardwood pulps are used for newsprint. 

Source : Podder (1979) 

118

119

PART - III 

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Paper Mills and History of Pulp and Paper 

1. Bhat, R.V. 1951. Paper and board industry in India. The Madras Forest College 

Magazine. 

2. Cai Mingde; Wang Guorong; Wang Songxue. 1992. The recent situation of bamboo 

utilization in the overseas industry of paper. Journal of Bamboo Research 11(2): 66-92. 

3. Chief Conservator of Forests, Madhya Pradesh. 1971. Royalty on bamboos to be charged 

to the Paper Mills - a report. 

It is a report on the royalty charged on bamboos in the states of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, 

Mysore, Madras, Kerala, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab, West Bengal and Orissa to gather information 

regarding the royalty charged on bamboos. 

4. Fellegi, J; Rao, A.R.K. 1980. A new applied research centre for the Indian pulp and 

paper industry. Zonal Seminar on High Yielding Pulping and Bleaching of Pulps, 20-21 

September 1980, Dehra Dun. 

5. Goel, S; Goyel, R; Hirknnawar, S; Nerurkar, D.L; Ghosh, P.K; Saksena, U.L; Rajan, T.N.S; 

Kocholia, R.S. 1989. Modernization and renovation of the paper industry. Paper 

presented in the IPPTA Silver Jubilee International Seminar and Workshop on Appropriate 

Technology for Pulp and Paper Manufacturing in Developing Countries, 1989, IPPTA, New 

Delhi: 18p. 

6. Guha, S.R.D; Pant, R. 1972. Fibrous raw materials for the Indian paper and board 

industry. Indian Forester 98(7): 409-426. 

Presents the results of tests made at Dehra Dun since 1964 on various indigenous materials 

(bamboo, grasses and reeds, woods and agricultural residues). 

7. Gupta, T; Shah, N. 1987. Paper and Paperboard in India. Oxford and IBH Publishing, 

Bombay. 

7a. Libby, C.E. 1962. History of pulp and paper. In: Libby, C.E. (ed.), Pulp and Paper 

Science and Technology, Volume 1. Pulp. Mc Grow-Hill Book Company, New York: 1-19. 

8. Monsalud, M.R; Tamolang, F.N. 1962. Pulp and paper research in the Philippines Forest 

Products Research Institute. TAPPI Journal 45(2): 38A-62A. 

Describes in detail the exploratory work being done at the Institute on pulp and paper 

manufacture, and presents preliminary data on fibre measurements, proximate chemical analyses, and 

the evaluation of many native commercial and noncommercial fibrous raw materials, including ca. 250 

hardwood and 10 softwood species, palms, bamboos, and agricultural wastes. 

9. Nair, P.N. 1970. Wood raw materials in relation to pulp and paper industry in Kerala. 

Kerala Forest Department, Government of Kerala. Publication No. 3: 14-18. 

10. Naiyana Niyomwan; Anchalee Kamolratanakul; Likit Harnjangsit. 1983. Techno-economic 

survey on demand for research on pulp and paper industries. Bangkok: 55 leaves. 

Results of the survey indicated that there were several problems deterring the progress of pulp 

and paper industries in Thailand. The degree of problems varied according to the size of industries. 

Most industries needed research service, particularly in technical know-how and processing methods. 

Detailed recommendations and research findings useful in solving the problems encountered in pulp 

and paper industries are included in this report. 

11. Notes on the utilisation and silviculture of the timbers used in wood based industries 

of India III. Paper Industry. Proceedings of the Eighth Silvicultural Conference, 5-14 

1

December 1951, Dehra Dun. 1956. Vol.2. Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun: 

118, 131-136. 

A review of the Indian paper industry is given. There were 16 paper mills in 1950. Anticipated 

consumption of paper in 1956 was 4,00,000 tones. Because of the high quality of pulp, bamboo yield 

and their availability in large quantities at reasonable prices, bamboo was used as raw material 

extensively in paper industry. It was reported that in 1950, above 2,25,000 tones of bamboo was used 

in this industry. 

12. Ono, K. 1962. Studies on bamboo pulp industry. Resources Bureau, Science and 

Techniques Agency, Prime Minister's Office: 54p. 

The report focuses on the physical and chemical features of bamboo as raw material for pulp and 

views on pulp making methods. The report gives survey results of bamboo forests in Indonesia and 

Burma (Myanmar) and discusses the new scientific techniques for bamboo pulping industry. 

13. Pandit, S.V; Puntambekar, P.P; Gupte, V.M. 1978. Role of bamboo chipper in pulp mill 

economy. USA, Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry, Nonwood Plant Fiber 

Committee. Nonwood plant fiber pulping. Progress report No. 9. TAPPI Journal: 105-112. 

The performance of the PN bamboo disc chipper (investment, maintenance costs and chip quality) 

was superior to that of others used in the Indian pulp and paper industry. Bamboo chipping operations 

are described at Central Pulp Mills Ltd. in India. 

14. Podder, V. 1959. Paper Industry in India. Rohtas Industrial Ltd., Dalmianagar, India. 

15. Podder, V. 1979. Paper Industry in India: A study. In: Grasses and Reeds. Oxford & IBH 

Publishing, New Delhi: 50-59. 

16. Pulp and Paper Canada. 2000. SNC-Lavalin completes proposed bamboo pulp mill 

study. Pulp and Paper Canada 101(5): p9. 

A case study is presented of a mill in Fengshun County of the Guangdong Province of China, in 

which, using plantation bamboo as a furnish, pulp with quality high enough for fine papers could be 

produced. 

17. Rao, P.J.M. 1989. Working of thousands of mini paper factories in China. Paper 

presented in the IPPTA Silver Jubilee International Seminar and Workshop on Appropriate 

Technologies for Pulp and Paper Manufacture in Developing Countries, 1989, New Delhi: 

p2. 

18. Seth, V.K. 1972. Planning for pulp and paper industries in India. Indian Forester 98(4): 

213-219. 

In the year 1952 there were 17 paper mills in India and their installed capacity was 1,37,000 

tonnes. In 1972 there were 57 mills with a total installed capacity of 7,30,000 tonnes. The author 

advocates for a more closer tie up of forestry and industry for the progress of paper industries in India. 

Sixty seven percent of raw material for pulp and paper is bamboo. Rapid growth of paper industry 

started depleting bamboo wealth. Advancement of technology made it easy to pulp hardwood also 

which reduces pressure on bamboo. 

19. Seth, V.K. 1974. The potential of Madhya Pradesh for pulp, paper and newsprint mills. 

Indian Forester 100(1): 20-27. 

The study cover on the present production potential of bamboo, with demand projections to 1988- 

89. On this basis, proposals are made for the numbers, capacity and location of paper, paperboard and 

newsprint mills that could be installed in the State, in order to utilize the bamboo resource. 

19a. Sieber, R. 1951. Die Chemish – Technischen Untersuchungsmethoden der Zellstoffund 

Papierindustrie, 2 nd Edn., Springer, Berlin. 

2

20. Sumg, Y.H. 1967. Pulp and paper technology in 17th century China. Pulp and Paper 

Magazine of Canada 68(1): 107-110. 

Extract from a translation of the book `Chinese technology in the 17th century' (Pennsylvania 

State University Press, University Park). The manufacture of bamboo paper, and bark paper from 

Broussonetia papyrifera, Hibiscus mutabilis and Silk-Mulberry [Morus alba?] is described. 

21. Tang, Y.Y. 1999. Current situation and future development of bamboo timber 

processing industry in China. The Proceedings (I) of the International Seminar on 

Technologies of the Cultivation, Processing and Utilization of Bamboo in the '99 Bamboo 

Cultural Festival of China. Journal of Bamboo Research 18(4): 5-10. 

The industrial exploitation and utilization of bamboo timber in China has increased markedly since 

the reforming and opening up of the country to the outside world. This article discusses the main 

products of the bamboo industry (artificial boards, domestic articles, artworks and handicrafts, and 

pulping and paper-making products), their present production situation and development prospects. 

General Pulping and Paper Making 

22. Aggarwal, R.K. 1971. Pulping of hardwoods in Kamyr continuous digester. Paper 

presented in the Conference on Utilization of Hardwoods for Pulp and Paper, 19-20 April 

1971, FRI and Colleges, Dehra Dun, India: 139-153. 

23. American Paper and Pulp Association. 1951. The dictionary of paper. 2nd Edn. New York. 

24. Atchison, J.E. 1996. Twentyfive years of global progress in nonwood plant fiber 

repulping. TAPPI Journal 79(10): 87-95. 

25. Belvin, W.L. 1957. Opportunities for increased use of hardwoods through improved 

pulping technique and processes. Forest Products Journal 7(11): 424-426. 

Discusses the need for, and economic advantages of, hardwood pulping, particularly in the 

Southern U.S.A., briefly surveying the chief processes-semichemical, chemi-groundwood and cold 

soda and the suitability of the pulps for various types of paper, on the basis of U.S. literature. Recent 

research into bamboo growing and pulping in the south is briefly mentioned. It is thought to be a 

promising material. 

26. Bhargava, M.P; Chattar Singh. 1942. Manufacture of newsprint, cheap papers and 

boards. Indian Forest Bulletin 108. 

Tests have been carried out with materials from three species of conifers, seven species of 

broadleaved trees and three species of bamboos to determine their use in the manufacture of 

newsprint, cheap papers and boards. Of the conifers, Abies pindrow and Picea morinda are suitable for 

newsprint production, and supplies of these species are said to be sufficient in Kashmir and Tehri- 

Garhwal States to support a moderate-sized newsprint mill. Pinus longifolia saplings are suitable for 

newsprint production, but supplies are uncertain. Of the broadleaved species, Broussonetia papyrifera, 

Kydia calycina and Excaecaria agallocha show promise for newsprint production but are not at present 

available in sufficient quantity to support a newsprint mill. Materials from the other four broadleaved 

species, mature Pinus longifolia, and the bamboo species yielded brown-coloured pulps unsuitable for 

newsprint production, which could, however, be utilized in small proportions in the manufacture of 

cheap wrapping papers, duplex boards and triplex boards. 

27. Bhat, R.V; Guha, S.R.D; Viramani, K.C. 1960. Newsprint grade ground wood pulp from 

Abies pindrow Royle. (Silver Fir). Indian Forester 86(5): 302-305. 

Laboratory experiments on the production of mechanical pulps from Abies pindrow (Silver fir) are 

described. Standard pulp sheets were made from 100 per cent mechanical pulp from this species and 

from a mixture of 70 per cent mechanical pulp and 30 per cent bleached bamboo chemical pulp. 

3

Strength properties of the standard sheets prepared from the mechanical pulp produced under suitable 

conditions have shown that this wood is a suitable raw material for the production of newsprint. 

28. Biswas, B. 1971. Some observations on utilization of tropical harwoods for pulp and 

paper. Conference on Utilization of Hardwood for Pulp and Paper, 19-20 April 1971, Dehra 

Dun. 

29. Bunchu Pakotiprapha. 1976. A study of bamboo pulp and fiber cement paste 

composites. Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok: 83p. 

This study was examined the feasibility of using bamboo pulp as a suitable substitute for asbestos 

fiber by using the available technology and facilities for the mass production of fiber cement boards. 

Explicit expressions are given for the mechanical properties of the material in compression, tension, 

bending and torsion, respectively. The minimum volume fraction of each type of fiber as well as an 

optimum mix proportion between bamboo pulp and fibers are suggested for the various composites 

being studied to attain specified mechanical properties. 

30. Carrasco, N; Salvador. 1961. Mexican raw materials other than wood for the preparation 

of chemical pulps. ATCP 1(1): 5-14. 

31. Chandra, R. 1975. Production and cost of logging and transport of bamboo. (FAO 

Report: FAO/SWE/TF 157) FAO, Rome: 72p. 

A report based on information from India, Bangladesh, Burma and Thailand. The aspects 

considered are; structure of bamboo forests, statistical information, labour force, transport systems, 

felling and conversion, off-road transport, long distance transportation, cost summary and 

mechanization and rationalization of harvesting. Difficulties of harvesting peculiar to bamboo are 

pointed out and fields for further research are suggested. A list of principal bamboo species used for 

pulp and paper, data on transport systems and cost of mechanized felling and extraction, etc. are 

included as appendices. 

32. Cunningham, R.L; Clark, T.F. 1970. A search for new fibre crops. XIII. Laboratory scale 

pulping studies continued. TAPPI Journal 53(9): 1967-1700. 

Mainly an assessment of the pulping potential of a further selection of non-woody plants, but 

includes data on the bamboos Guadua amplexifolia from Mexico, Arundinaria alpina from Ethiopia and 

Bambusa vulgaris from Brazil. All three species offer good yields of readily bleachable pulp with 

satisfactory strength characteristics (especially resistance to tear), but only G. amplexifolia and A. 

alpina are likely to withstand cold well enough to warrant planting trials in the U.S.A. 

33. Ekwebelam, S.A. 1990. Rationale for the choice of pines for the production of long 

fibres for paper manufacture in Nigeria. Savanna 11(1): 88-94. 

In order to conserve foreign exchange and reduce dependence on imported paper, the Nigerian 

Government has established 3 integrated pulp and paper mills. The raw materials used in the mills 

have consisted of short fibred pulp from hardwoods, principally Gmelina arborea, and long fibres from 

exotic conifers, principally Pinus species, in a definite proportion. Available statistics show that besides 

conifers, non-wood materials, such as raffia (Raphia spp.) and bamboo (Bambusa and Dendrocalamus 

spp.) can also provide long fibres for paper making. Nigeria has very rich reserves of these resources, 

but despite their abundance, greater emphasis has been placed on the use of pines for the production 

of long fibres for pulp and paper manufacture. This paper reviews the silvicultural, management and 

utilization problems, as well as technological problems relating to the use of raffia and bamboo, which 

have necessitated this decision; the account includes a discussion of the comparative fibre morphology 

of raffia and bamboo in relation to pine. 

34. FAO. 1984. A report on pulping prospects. Unasylva 36(144): 44-51. 

An account of the prospects of pulping in India is presented. The growing stock of bamboo in pure 

stands for 1980 and 1985 are reported. The stock of 12 million in 1980 is reported to decrease to 11.7 

million tonnes by 1985. The importance of appropriate management and establishment of bamboo 

plantations is stressed to increase the utilisation of the stock for pulping. 

4

35. Fengel, D; Wegner, G. 1984. Pulping Process. In: Wood Chemistry, Ultra Structure 

Reactions, Chapter 16. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin. 

36. Goswami, T; Saikia, C.N. 1994. Water hyacinth - A potential source of raw material for 

greaseproof paper. Bio-resource Technology 50(3): 235-238. 

The potential use of water hyacinth as a pulp material for producing greaseproof paper was 

investigated using plants collected from freshwater ponds in Jorhat. The proximate chemical analyses 

of the raw materials, the morphology, of the water hyacinth stalk and fibre, pulp characteristics, and 

data on the physical properties of the paper handsheets formed from water hyacinth and bamboo pulps 

and their blends are presented. Blending of water hyacinth and bamboo pulps increased the physical 

strength. Paper handsheets made with a blend of water hyacinth pulp (75 o SR) and bamboo pulp 

(80 o SR), at 75:25 proportion, gave a tear index of 4.90 mN m 2 g -1 , tensile index of 51.10 N mg -1 and 

burst index of 7.25 kPa m 2 g -1 . These were higher than values obtained from sheets made with pulp 

blends (water hyacinth:bamboo) of 80:20 or 90:10. The pulp sheets at a blend proportion of 75:25 also 

gave satisfactory greaseproof properties. 

37. Grant, J. 1962. The formation and structure of paper. Technical Sessions of the British 

Paper Board Maker's Association, London, Volume II.: 573-591. 

38. Guha, S.R.D; Sharma, Y.K. 1970. Chemical, semi-chemical and mechanical pulps from 

Casuarina equisetifolia. Indian Forester 96(11): 830-840. 

Gives data on proximate chemical analysis and fibre dimensions of C. equsetifolia and 

Dendrocalamus strictus, laboratory observations on chemical pulps of C. equsetifolia and 

Dendrocalamus strictus, and pilot plant production of wrapping paper from unbleached pulps of C. 

equsetifolia, bamboo and a 75:25 mixture of C. equsetifolia and bamboo (sample sheets included). 

Yield and strength properties were higher for C. equsetifolia, but it was not suitable for mechanical 

pulps as the energy consumption for grinding was high and the pulps were dark. 

39. Guha, S.R.D; Sharma, Y.K; Kumar, K. 1973. Pulping of Poplars. Indian Forester 99(5): 

296-301. 

Data obtained in a study of the fibre dimensions and pulping properties of Populus deltoides 'IC', 

P. 'I-488' and P. 'Heidemij' digested by the sulphate process indicated that the pulping properties were 

generally superior to those of P. ciliata and Dendrocalamus strictus. From a silvicultural point of view, 

P. deltoides 'IC' appears to be the most promising clone for large-scale propagation. 

40. Guha, S.R.D; Sharma, Y.K; Mathur, C.M. 1970. Pilot plant production of Braille printing 

paper from indigenous raw materials. Indian Pulp and Paper 24(7): 317-319. 

Reports very encouraging results of pilot-plant trials at Dehra Dun on the production of Braille 

printing paper from pulp made from bamboo, mixed hardwoods from Maharashtra, or a mixture of 

Quercus sp. from Himachal Pradesh, and concludes that the products obtainable from these Indian 

raw materials can be used in place of imported Braille papers. 

41. Guha, S.R.D; Singh, M.M; Bhola, P.P. 1975. Laboratory trials with Eucalyptus hybrid 

wood, fresh and after storage for newsprint. Indian Forester 101(8): 476-483. 

Laboratory experiments carried out on the production of newsprint from furnish containing 30 

chemical pulp from Eetta reed (Ochlandra travancorica) and 70 stone ground wood pulp, refiner 

mechanical pulp or cold soda pulp or hot sulphite pulp from stored and fresh Eucalyptus hybrid 

(Mysore gum) are described. The results show that newsprint of satisfactory strength properties could 

be prepared from fresh and stored wood. The power consumption in case of fresh wood is lower than 

the stored wood in all the cases. Fresh wood gives a brighter and easily bleachable pulp. 

42. Guha, S.R.D; Singh, M.M; Karira, B.G; Nair, V.K.S. 1980. Laboratory experiments on 

Andhra Pradesh hardwoods on behalf of Bhadrachalam Paper Boards Ltd. Indian 

Forester 106(7): 490-495. 

The yield and properties of pulps from bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus) combined with different 

proportions of mixed hardwood pulps (a mixture of 30-40 per cent each of Terminalia tomentosa and T. 

5

ellirica and 2.5 - 5 per cent each of 8 other species). Increase in the percentage of hardwoods slightly 

increased yield but decreased strength properties, though the mixed pulps still had satisfactory 

properties for the manufacture of writing and printing paper, wrapping paper and 3-layer board. 

43. Harris, J.F. 1974. The role of total process concepts in evaluating pulping research. 

Proceedings of the TAPPI Non-sulphur Pulping Symposium, Madison: 161-167. 

44. Istas, J.R. 1958. Studies on the use of tropical species of papyrus for paper-making. 

Bulletin, Association Technique de Industries Papetiere, Paris (1): 18p. 

Presents results of chemical and morphological examinations and of various pulping experiments 

on raw materials from the Belgian Congo. Although papyrus could be pulped satisfactorily, yields were 

too low for commercial use. Pulps from individual hardwood species were, with few exceptions, inferior 

to Pinus sylvestris; pulps of mixed species had qualities similar but slightly inferior to that of P. 

sylvestris. Bamboos are not at presently available in sufficient quantities, but more could be planted. 

The dwarf bamboos (Sasa paniculata, S. variabilis, Arundinaria nitida and A. simonii) are unsuitable for 

pulping (short, fine stiff fibres); the largest species examined (fibre length 2.7 mm.) gave promising 

results, especially Bambusa vulgaris. 

45. Joedodibroto, R; Sugiharto, A. 1996. Can bamboo substitute Pinus merkusii in paper 

making? An overall comparative study. Bamboo, People and the Environment Vol.3 

Engineering and Utilization. Proceedings of the Vth Internation Bamboo Workshop, Ubud, 

Bali, Indonesia, 19-22 June 1995. INBAR Technical Report 8. International Network for 

Bamboo and Rattan, New Delhi: 246-257. 

Bamboo has a woody structure and relatively long fibres, and the culms can be harvested when 2- 

3 years old. Pinus merkusii, on the other hand, is a softwood with long fibres and its rotation is 15 

years. It is of interest to know whether some bamboo species could be used as a substitute for P. 

merkusii in paper making and there by save timber resources and promote industrial bamboo 

plantations. This paper reports the results of a comparative study. If Gigantochloa apus and P. 

merkussii with regards to producing pulp for making strong paper. The results showed that G. apus 

pulp can be used as a substitute for P. merkusii pulp in paper making by choosing appropriate pulping 

conditions and pulp mixture composition. 

46. Kadambi, K; Ashong, F.W.A. 1966. Promise of technology in the conversion and 

efficient utilization of wood resources, with particular reference to utilization of wood 

waste in Ghana. Paper presented in the IVth World Forestry Congress. 

47. Kato, H. 1961. Concerning physico-chemical properties of Japanese paper. TAPPI 

Journal 15(8): 549-551. 

48. Krishnamachari, K.S; Rangan, S.G; Ravindranathan, N; Reddy, D.V. 1975. Seshasayee 

Paper and Board's experience in the use of hardwoods for papermaking. Chem. Ind. 

Devts, Bombay 9(10): 41-45. 

Locally available hardwoods are being used to supplement limited supplies of bamboo. 

Satisfactory kraft pulps have been obtained with (1) 70% bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus), 15% 

Mysore gum (Eucalyptus tereticornis) and 15% dadup (Erythrina suberosa),and (2) 50% bamboo, 20% 

Acacia arabica, 15% Mysore gum and 15% dadup. 

49. Kulkarni, A.Y; Parkhe, P.M. 1990. Appropriate technologies for pulping and paper 

making of unconventional raw materials in India. Proceedings of the Pulping 

Conference, USA: 313-320. 

50. Labarre, E.J. 1952. A Dictionary and Encylopedia of Paper and Papermaking with 

Equvalence of Technical Terms in France, German, Dutch, Italian, Spanish and 

Swedish. 2nd Edn. Amsterdam. 

51. Maheshwari, S. 1982. Some basic aspects of high yield pulping. IPPTA 20(2). 

6

52. Mall, I.D; Upadhyay, S.N; Singh, A.R; Upadhya, Y.D. 1989. Environmental pollution due 

to pulp and paper industry. Paper presented in the IPPTA Silver Jubilee International 

Seminar and Workshop on Appropriate Technologies for Pulp and Paper Manufacture in 

Developing Countries, New Delhi: p18. 

53. Merck, A.G.E. 1957. Chemish - Technishe Untersuchungsmethoden fur die Zellstoffund 

Papierfabrikation, Verlag Chemi, Weinheim. 

54. Mishra, N.D. 1971. Pulping of hardwoods: Our experience at Sirpur Paper Mills. 

Proceedings of the Conference on Utilisation of Hardwoods for Pulp and Paper, 19-20 April 

1971, FRI & Colleges, Dehdra Dun: 71-79. 

55. Mishra, N.D. 1973. A tentative method of grading hardwoods for chemical grade pulp. 

Indian Pulp and Paper 27(10): 7-10. 

Suggests a system for grading Indian hardwood pulpwood, based on nine characteristics that take 

into account economy of pulping, suitability for paper-making, adaptability to existing manufacturing 

processes and quality of end product. The system, which distinguishes four grades of suitability for 

pulping, is used to classify 20 species viz. Bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus), kenaf (Hibiscus 

cannabinus) and 18 hardwoods. 

56. Mishra, N.D; Kothari, M.B. 1969. A case study of bamboo fibre stock flow over a 

Fourdrinier paper machine. Indian Pulp and Paper 23(9): 541-545. 

57. Mishra, N.D; Rao, A.V. 1969. Pulping characteristics of Anduk wood (Boswellia serrata 

Roxb.) grown in Andhra Pradesh. Indian Pulp and Paper 23(12): 669-676. 

A laboratory study on sulphate pulping of B. serrata, a hardwood readily available to supplement 

the inadequate supply of bamboo in Andhra Pradesh, showed that B. serrata and bamboo, have 

different cooking characteristics; a better grade of pulp, with less chemical consumption, is produced 

from bamboo by the 2- stage temperature treatment method and from B. serrata by the impregnation 

(4-stage) method; bamboo and B. serrata should therefore be cooked seprately. The data also show, 

however, that the total bleach demand of the two pulps, produced by the same method of cooking to 

the same K-number level, is very similar; it thus appears that the pulps can be bleached and mixed 

together. 

58. Monsalud, M.R. 1964. Pulp and paper evaluvation of Philippine species. Annual Report 

1963-64. Philippine Forest Products Research Institute. 

59. Monsalud, M.R; Bawagan, P.V; Escolano, J.O. 1965. Properties of wrapping papers from 

Philippine fibrous materials as related to pulp blending. Lumberman 11(33): 10, 12, 16, 

54-55. 

Data on fibre length, cell-wall thickness, lumen width, Runkel ratio and specific gravity for 6 long 

and 9 short-fibred materials including (a) Pinus insularis (b) three bamboos and (c) Samanea saman, 

Pantacme contorta, and other hardwoods are provided. Properties of papers from various pulps and 

blends are tabulated. 

60. Nair, V.K.S. 1971. Certain aspects on utilisation of evergreen hardwoods for pulp and 

paper making in India. Proceedings of the Conference on Utilisation of Hardwoods for Pulp 

and Paper, 19-20 April 1971, FRI & Colleges, Dehra Dun, India: 21-26. 

61. Nelson, G.H. 1966. A search for new fibre crops: Analytical evaluations. TAPPI Journal 

49(1): 40-48. 

An evaluation of 208 monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous species, mainly herbaceous annuals, 

but including some bamboos (Sinarundinaria murielae, 3 Phyllostachys spp., 2 Arundinaria spp., and 

Oxytenanthera abyssinica), considered promising sources of pulp for planting in the S.E. and on the 

Pacific coast of the U.S.A. 

7

62. Pande, G.C. 1970. A modified technique for steam-vapour phase prehydrolysis of 

bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus). Indian Pulp and Paper 25(1/6): 403-407. 

Describes a promising new technique in sulphate pulping that permits the removal of sufficient 

pentosans to bring the pulp within the limits specified for dissolving-grade pulp. 

63. Premrasmi, T; Aranyaputi, S. 1965. Rudimentary study of suitability of some Thai 

timbers for paper and pulp. Vanasaran 23(2): 105-106. 

64. Qiu, F.G. 1993. An approach to utilization of the bamboo waste left over from its 

processing. Journal of Bamboo Research 12(2): 28-32. 

At the moment the 3 main uses for bamboo residues in Zhejiang Province are: (i) pulping; (ii) 

bamboo particleboards; and (iii) fodder. Alternative uses of the residues are suggested, such as 

production of charcoal and xylose. 

65. Raitt, W. 1911. Suitability of various woods, bamboos and grasses for paper making. 


A memorandum which contains instructions for the selection and collection of materials for paper 

making. 

66. Ramaswami, V; Ramanathan, T. 1989. Recent developments in biotechnology related to 

pulp and paper industry. Paper presented in the IPPTA Silver Jubilee International 

Seminar and Workshop on Appropriate Technologies for Pulp and Paper Manufacture in 

Developing Countries, 1989, New Delhi: p15. 

67. Ray, A.K; Garceau, J.J; Kokta, B.V; Carrasco, F; Bridgwater, A.V. 1994. Upgrading 

Nonwood Fibres by Chemical Impregnation and High-pressure Pulping. Advances in 

thermochemical biomass conversion Vol 2: 1598-1624. Blackie Academic & Professional, 

Glasgow, UK. 

Preimpregnated bamboo chips, sugarcane bagasse and rice straw of Indian origin were cooked at 

463 K (saturated steam pressure 1.26 MPa) in a Stake Technology batch reactor with different 

chemical charges and different types of chemicals. Bamboo required much more drastic impregnation 

for a protracted time with severe chemical treatment, and, for improved pulp quality, the most effective 

pulping agents were either caustic soda alone at high charge or an optimum mixture of sodium sulfite 

and alkali. Loss of pulp yield was observed for all species when impregnated with NaOH. The optical 

properties of unbleached pulp were acceptable for newsprint-quality pulp. A combination of Na2SO3 

with a lower per centage of NaOH may be a compromise between pulp yield loss and a gain in 

strength properties for bamboo. The drainage times of bamboo pulp were greatly superior to those of 

bagasse and rice straw pulps. 

68. Razzaque, M.A; Siddique, A.B. 1970. Fibre analysis of 20 tropical hardwoods and 20 

grass species of East Pakistan. Bulletin No. 10 Pulp and Paper Series 3/6, Forest 

Research Institute, Chittagong, Bangladesh. 

69. Rodriguez, S.K; Torres, M. 1995. Use of Chusquea culeou for producing chemical pulp. 

Ciencia e Investigacion Forestal 9(2): 165-175. 

Samples of Chusquea culeou, which is abundant in Chile, were processed to produce unbleached 

kraft pulp. Variables tested included 14 and 18 alkali, maximum temperature of 160 and 170°C, and 15 

or 30 min and maximum temperature. Total yields ranged between 46 and 55; Kappa number was 7- 

20. Strength properties were similar for 2 pulps with H factor 431 and 195. Under the experimental 

conditions, pulps of C. culeou had physical and mechanical properties that were lower than those from 

softwoods and several hardwoods. 

70. Rydholm, S.A. 1965. Pulping Process. Interscience Publishers, New York: 1269p. 

The book begins with a survey of the forests of the world and includes and discusses data on 

wood species, the gross and minute structure of trees and wood fibres, and the chemical composition 

8

and reactions of their components. The operations involved in the preparation of cellulose pulp from 

the forest to the finished product are then described and discussed. The section headings comprise the 

manufacture of unbleached and of bleached pulp. A final chapter surveys the properties and uses of 

pulp and the world pulp industry. Emphasis is on the physical and chemical processes involved rather 

than the purely technological aspects. The influence of process variables on yields and properties of 

pulps are demonstrated and analysed. The chemical reactions involved, the preparation and recovery 

of pulping chemicals, and the manufacture of organic byproducts are also dealt with. 

71. Rydholm, S.A. 1966. Wood quality and cost requirement for forest industries and 

dissolving pulp. Proceedings of the Sixth World Forestry Congress: 3301-3302. 

72. Sato, A; Kitamura, T; Higuchi, T. 1976. Studies on wood phenolics (Part V). Chemical 

properties and NMR analysis of milled wood lignins. Wood Research 59(60): 93-100. 

Milled wood (Bjorkman) lignins of Metasequoia glyptostroboides, Fagus crenata and the bamboo 

Phyllostachys pubescens were analysed by nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometry, and some 

chemical properties of the lignins were also examined. The molecular weight of the milled wood lignins 

of the three species were 2610, 2700 and 1740 respectively. 

73. Satyanarayana, G; Vaikuntam, K; Raghuveer, S. 1992. Improved performances of 

evaporators and chemical recovery boiler with the increased utilisation of hard woods 

at ITC Bhadrachalam Paperboards Limited. IPPTA 4(3): 121-122. 

Adaptations were made to black liquor evaporators so that a mixture of bamboo and hardwood 

pulp (at a ratio of 70:30) could be processed as efficiently as bamboo. 

74. Schwenzon, K. 1963. The hydrotropic pulping of some plant materials. Zellstoff Papier 

12(10): 290-296. 

75. Schwenzon, K. 1965. The hydrotropic pulping of plants. Zellstoff. Papier. 14(7): 199-201. 

76. Singh, M.M. 1960. Pressed boards from bamboo dusts. Indian Pulp and Paper 15(3): 

201-203. 

77. Singh, M.M. 1989. Raw materials for pulp and paper industry. Paper presented in the 

Silver Jubilee International Seminar and Workshop on Appropriate Technologies for Pulp 

and Paper Manufacture in Developing Countries, September-October 1989, New Delhi: p35. 

78. Singh, M.M; Madan, R.N; Dhawan, R; Kaira, K.K; Kaira, B.G. 1981. Investigations on 

Andaman & Nicobar Islands woods for different grades of paper. Indian Forester 

107(6): 377-383. 

Laboratory scale experiments were carried out on the production of wrapping, writing, printing and 

newsprint grade pulps from seven species by different pulping processes like sulphate, neutral 

sulphite, semi-chemical (N.S.S.C) and cold soda. Unbleached pulps suitable for wrapping paper were 

obtained in satisfactory yields and having satisfactory strength properties by using sulphate and 

(N.S.S.C) process. For writing and printing paper the pulps were bleached by CEH sequence. 

Bleached pulps in satisfactory yield and good strength properties were obtained. Pulps in high yield 

could be obtained by cold soda process, which when admixed with 28 bamboo sulphate pulp were 

considered to be suitable for newsprint. Comparative suitability indices of woods for wrapping and 

writing and printing papers were calculated. From the reults it can be concluded that all the seven 

species are suitable for wrapping, writing, printing and newsprint grade pulps. 

79. Singh, M.M; Mukherjea, V.N. 1965. Fibrous raw materials for the Indian pulp, paper and 

board industry. Indian Forester 91(7): 505-529. 

Data on fibre dimensions, proximate chemical analysis, method of pulping, yield of pulping, 

suitability of pulp for a varietis of paper, board and rayon of bamboos are provided. 

9

80. Stevens, R.H. 1958. Bamboo or wood. Southern Pulp and Paper Manufacturer 21(3): 

93-94, 108. 

Work at the Harty Foundation has shown that bamboos can be pulped readily, with less chemical 

and power than wood, by the kraft and a 2-stage alkali process. Fresh culms and those cut for a year 

and protected against insect damage gave equally good results. Chemical composition of the culms 

and of the pulps was similar to that of pulpwood species and wood pulps respectively. Only minor 

differences were found between pulps of 21 bamboo species. The fibres are shorter than those of 

conifers and longer than those of hardwoods, and narrower than wood fibres used in papermaking. 

Properties of the pulps and papers are discussed. 

81. Zhang, M; Kawai, S; Sasaki, H. 1994. Production and properties of composite 

fibreboard. Wood Research 81: 31-33. 

Fibreboards were made from combinations of lauan (Shorea sp.), jute (Corchorus capsularis), 

bamboo (Phyllostachys pubescens) and bagasse and properties were investigated. 

82. Zhang, M; Kawai, S; Sasaki, H; Yamawaki, T; Yoshida, Y; Kashihara, M. 1995. Manufacture 

and properties of composite fiberboard II. Fabrication of board manufacturing 

apparatus and properties of bamboo/wood composite fiberboard. Journal of Japan 

Wood Research Society 41(10): 903-910. 

Bamboo/wood composites fibreboards were manufactured using bamboo and wood fibres as raw 

material at various fibre mix ratios. An apparatus for drying fibre with an adhesive blending device was 

set up and an apparatus for forming fibre mats was also made for this experiment. A carding machine 

was used to mix the fibres. The mixing ratios of bamboo to wood were 1/0, 3/1, 1/1, 1/3, and 0/1, and 

the target board specific gravities were 0.60 and 0.80. The amount of isocyanate resin added was 10 

of the oven-dry weight of fibres. The MOR and MOE in both dry and wet conditions, internal bond 

strength, thickness swelling and linear expansion were determined. Increasing the ratio of bamboo 

fibre improved the MOR, MOE retention ratio and linear expansion after boiling. 

Bamboo Resources and Distribution 

83. Bamboo resources - Andhra Pradesh - Status paper. Proceedings of the National 

Seminar on Bamboos, 19-20 December 1990, Bangalore. Bamboo Society of India. 1992. 

Bangalore: 208-209. 

Discusses briefly the state of bamboo resources of Andhra Pradesh. The species Dendrocalamus 

strictus grows extensively in the State. It is estimated that bamboo occurs over 9,883 sq. km. of the 

total forest area of 63,770 sq. km. and total growing stock is estimated as 38 lakh metric tonnes. Large 

scale pure bamboo plantations are raised by Andhra Pradesh Forest Department and Forest 

Development Corporation in various places. A survey conducted of the bamboo areas shows that the 

clump formation is completed by nine years and bamboo extraction can be taken up from ninth year. 

84. Bamboo supplies in India. Indian Forester 39(11): 1913: p552. 

The possibility of starting a paper manufacturing industry in Cochin is stated. 

85. Bamboo supplies for paper making. Indian Forester 53(6). 1927: 349-351. 

An editorial on bamboo supplies for paper making. It is a reprint of the article on bamboo supplies 

for paper making by Mr. W. Raitt of Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun. 

86. Bhat, A.S. 1970. Economics of industrial plantations of Bambusa arundinacea. 

Myforest 7(1): 57-64. 

Discussed the economics of industrial plantations of Bambusa arundinacea for pulp and paper. 

10

87. Chaudhari, R.R. 1960. Bamboo surveys in the Bombay State. Proceedings of the Ninth 

Silvicultural Conference, 7, 10-19 December 1956, Dehra Dun. Forest Research Institute 

and Colleges, Dehra Dun Vol.2: 205-215. 

An account of a detailed systematic strip enumerations (involving clump analysis and problems of 

sustained yield) undertaken in the richer tracts of Dendrocalamus strictus and Bambusa arundinacea in 

the Kanara, Dangs and Vyara forests with a view to explore the possibilities of establishing pulp and 

paper mills in the State is given. 

88. CSIR, India. 1948. Bamboos. Wealth of India, Raw Materials. Council of Scientific and 

Industrial Research, New Delhi. Vol.1: 145-155. 

As per the information furnished, about 30 genera and 550 species inhabiting the humid tropical 

and extra-tropical regions are known. Of these, 136 species occur in India, 39 in Burma, 29 in 

Malaysia and the Andamans, 9 in Japan, 30 in the Philippines, 8 in New Guinea and a few in South 

Africa and Queensland. It also covers the varieties of bamboo, diseases and insect pests. Uses, 

including manufacture of paper-pulp and production of bamboo are discussed. 

89. CSIR, India. 1966. Neohouzeaua (Gramineae). Wealth of India, Raw Materials. Council of 

Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi. Vol.7: 9-10. 

A short description of the genus Neohouzeaua is given here. N. dullooa is a suitable raw material 

for paper pulp. 

90. Deb, D.B. 1978. Economic plants of Tripura State VII. Plants used for manufacture of 

paper and boards. Indian Forester 104(9): 609-614. 

Plants used for manufacture of paper and boards, which are found in the State are discussed in 

this paper. Eleven species of bamboo found in the State are reported to be suitable for the 

manufacture for pulp and paper. 

91. Desai, B.P. 1980. Management of bamboos in Chandrapur Circle, Maharashtra State. 

Proceedings of the Third Southern Silviculturists and Forest Research Officers Conference, 

3-5 March 1980, Dharwad. Karnataka Forest Department: 25-32. 

The paper indicates the extent of bamboo resources available in Chandrapur Circle, Maharashtra 

highlighting the species and its distribution in various forest types. The importance of scientific 

management of bamboos and the demand for this raw material are discussed. The existing felling 

rules in the circle and the extent of exploitation for meeting the demands of the paper mills are 

presented. 

92. Desai, B.P; Subramanian, K. 1980. A note on bamboos in Maharashtra. Proceedings of 

the Third Southern Silviculturists and Forest Research Officers Conference, 3-5 March 1980, 

Dharwad. Karnataka Forest Department: 39-60. 

Three important species of bamboo occurring in Maharashtra are Dendrocalamus strictus, 

Bambusa arundinacea and Oxytenanthera monostigma. The first two are the principal species utilized 

as raw material for paper and pulp industries. The distribution of bamboos, their ecology, botany and 

silviculture are discussed. The achievements in creating man made bamboo forests by artificial 

regeneration upto 1978-79 are highlighted. Details of gregarious flowering are summarised. 

Management and utilization aspects are discussed. 

93. Deshmukh, D.K. Bamboo plantations by West Coast Paper Mills Ltd. Dandeli. A new 

forest development strategy. West Coast Paper Mills, Dandeli: 5-17. 

The West Coast Paper Mills with the cooperation of Mysore Forest Department launched a 

programme of raising bamboo plantation in Dandeli in 1964 with the objective of 1. Filling the natural 

gaps and improve the bamboo stocking 2. To convert low yielding bamboo areas into high yielding 

bamboo areas and 3. To hasten up the development of natural bamboo crop. Here discusses the soil 

type, climate of the area, vegetation type, selection of species, planting programme, natural 

regeneration, yield and financial aspect of raising such plantation. 

11

94. Gamble, J.S. 1896. The bambuseae of British India. Annals of Royal Botanic Garden 7(1): 

1-133. 

An illustrated account of the bamuseae of India is given. Detailed information on the taxonomy, 

distribution, propagation of species are presented. Extensive notes on uses including rural dwellings 

and geotechnical applications are also given. 

95. Gu, X.P; Xiao, J.H; Liang, W.Y; Lin, Y.F; Zhang, C. 1998. The effects of N, P and K 

fertilizer applied in pulp bamboo stand. Scientia Silvae Sinicae 34(1): 25-32. 

A quadratic regression model was used to determine the effects of N, P and K fertilizers on 

relative growth rate of culms of Phyllostachys pubescens. The analysis of the principal effect of 

fertilizer shows that N, P and K have different effects on the increase of the output of P. pubescens 

stand, and the action order is: N > K > P in this test. 2-factor interaction analysis shows that there is a 

positive interaction between N and K to a certain extent, but there is no significant interaction between 

N and P, or P and K. Computer simulation showed that the optimum fertilizer combination is (within the 

confidence limits of 95): urea 325.5-413.5 kg/hm 2 , superphosphate 208.5-295.5 kg/hm 2 and potassium 

chloride 198-267 kg/hm 2 . 

96. Guha, S.R.D. 1961. Tour report of Dr. S.R.D. Guha to Culcutta and Luknow on February 

1961. File on Bamboo, Doc. Section, Forest Research Institute and Colleges, Dehra Dun. 

97. Hasan, S.M; Skoupy, J; Vaclav, E. 1976. Recent trends in Bamboo growing and use in 

Bangladesh. Silvaeculture Tropica et Subtropica 5: 59-69. 

In an assessment of the Bamboo resources of Bangladesh, it is pointed out that naturally 

occurring Bamboo species (the most common of which is Melocanna bambusoides) have thin-walled 

culms, whereas cultivated species, including Bambusa vulgaris, B. balcooa and B. nutans, have thickwalled 

culms. There are differences in utilization of the two groups of species, and cultivated species 

give higher yields for pulp production. Over-exploitation of accessible naturally occurring species has 

caused their disappearance from some areas and a decrease in yield. New management systems for 

growing Bamboo in plantations are suggested. Their introduction is dependent on the development of 

methods of propagation. Cultivated species are normally propagated by offsets and recently have been 

successfully propagated from 18- to 20-in-long branch cuttings with swollen basal nodes. 

98. Hegde, N.G. 1993. Scope for production of industrial raw materials through farmers. 

Vaniki Sandesh 17(3): 1-23. 

The introduction to this paper discusses the demand for wood in India, and gives data for wood 

consumption in 1985. A significant proportion of this consumption (42) is fuelwood, some 64 of which is 

collected free of cost by the poorer sections of society, and as such, offers no scope for 

commercialization. The next highest proportion of wood consumption is for the paper and paperboard 

industry (16.8), and the paper mainly concentrates on this industry, giving projected demands and 

production capacities (with some data for other overall wood demand and for wood for panelwood), 

and discussing sources of raw material (wood, bamboo, and agricultural residues), of which there is an 

anticipated shortage. Strategies for meeting industrial demand for pulpwood are outlined, and include 

afforesting degraded forest lands (which needs legislation to allow leasing to industry, and has met 

with environmental objections) and waste lands (some of which are either encroached or unsuitable). 

The available options are: (1) procuring wood from the Forest Department and Forest Plantation 

Corporation, from plantations on both forest and non-forest land; (2) leasing government and private 

lands to wood based industries for their own wood production; (3) leasing government land to farmers, 

with coordination of wood production by the industries concerned; and (4) the growing of trees by 

farmers on their own land, which is then procured by the wood based industries. The last option is 

considered to be the best, and theremainder of the paper discusses the involvement of farmers in 

industrial forestry, addressing profitability, and suitable species - the bamboos Bambusa arundinacea 

and Dendrocalamus strictus, and Eucalyptus spp. are those in most demand by the paper industry, but 

various other (multipurpose) species are also suitable for promotion under farm forestry and 

agroforestry systems. Steps to ensure profitability for the farmer include the selection of high yielding 

species and superior provenances, the use ofsuperior planting material (including micropropagated 

stock), improved silvicultural practices, improved harvesting and processing, and motivation and 

extension. Planning for product mix through farmers' organizations is also suggested. 

12

99. Hodge, W.H. 1957. Bamboos, their economic future in America. Gdn. J. N.Y. Bot. Gdn. 

7(4): 124-128. 

A general note on the introduction and use of bamboos in the U.S.A., and on research in progress 

there on their utilization. The yield/acre/year of cellulosic material is 6 times that of Southern Pine, and 

some species yield regularly on a 5-year cycle. 

100. Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education. 1991. Bamboo: The poorman's 

timber. ICFRE, Dehra Dun: 24p. 

101. Jha, Y.P. 1964. A short note on the management of bamboos (Dendrocalamus strictus) 

with special reference to its exploitation and mode of leasing out to paper mills in 

Daltonganj South Division, Bihar. All India Bamboo Study Tour and Symposium 1963-64, 

Dehra Dun. Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun: 166-174. 

A short note on the management of bamboos (Dendrocalamus strictus) in Daltonganj South Forest 

Division, Bihar is given. The mode of leasing out bamboos to paper mills, the manner in which the 

leases are granted in the past and present, the minimum royalty, method of calculation of royalty are 

discussed briefly. 

102. Kaitpraneet, W; Suwannapinant, W; Thaiutsa, B; Sahunalu, P. 1978. Management of 

bamboo forest for pulp and paper industry. Research Note, Faculty of Forestry, 

Kasetsart University 26: 9p. 

The results of a study in a pure stand of Thyrsostachys siamensis at Hin Lap, Changwat 

Kanchanaburi, Thailand in 1974-77. Plots of 15X15 m were treated by clear felling or selection felling 

with or without the application of mixed [NPK] fertilizer, and the numbers of new culms recorded for 3 

yr. The greatest number of new culms was in the selection system plots (av. 239/plot without NPK and 

220 with NPK). Clear felled plots had an average of 94 new culms without NPK and 103 with NPK. 

103. Kandelaki, T.E. 1976. The economics of utilizing bamboo. Lesmoe Khozyaistvo No. 12: 

61-62. 

Describes investigations in Soviet Georgia on the technical and economic feasibility of utilising 

home-grown bamboos as raw material in the pulp and paper industry. Data are given on the chemical 

composition of the wood of 3-year-old culms of three species of Phyllostachys, and literature data on 

plantation yields and management from Georgia and other countries are discussed. It is concluded 

that selective harvesting of 3-year culms is appropriate, and that P. edulis gives the best yields; the 

mean number of culms harvested per year in a high-yielding plantation is 2520 culms/year. The total 

yield from 1 ha of P. edulis plantation over a period of 80 years is 4218 t (as against only 360 t for a fir 

plantation and 440 t for Alder). The cost of 1 t bamboo free-at-mill is calculated at 11.77 roubles, vs. 

44 roubles for conifer pulpwood grown in Georgia. The pay-back period (break-even point) for a P. 

edulis plantation is 7 years from establishment. 

104. Karnik, M.G. 1956. Varieties of paper. Indian Forester 82(1): 203-205. 

In this article important varieties of paper like 1. writing, 2. printing, 3. newsprint, 4. wrapping and 

5. speciality paper are described along with the raw materials and method of preparation. 

105. Khristova, P; Gabir, S; Khristov, T. 1981. Raw material resources for obtaining fibrous 

semiproducts for pulp and papermaking in Sudan. Sudan Silva 4(24): 6-10. 

Eucalyptus camaldulensis from Sudanese plantations and the indigenous bamboo Oxytenanthera 

abyssinica were studied to see whether they were suitable for pulp production. They were pulped by 

the 'high temperature shock' chemithermomechanical process. Pulping was successful with both soda 

and sulphate liquors, E. camaldulensis gave a yield of 80-83 and O. abyssinica 70-74. The pulps are 

suitable for the manufacture of cardboard. The eucalyptus pulp is best mixed with 30 of long-fibre pulps 

to give it better strength properties. 

106. Lakshmana, A.C. 1992. Bamboo: A potential employment generator; Its present status 

and future prospects. Proceedings of the National Seminar on Bamboos, 19-20 December 

1990, Bangalore: 75-81. Bamboo Society of India, Bangalore. 

13

The suitability of bamboo species for social forestry programmes is highlighted. Discusses 

bamboo yield in Karnataka, the type and extent of its use and its high capacity to generate employment 

and income especially among tribal people, marginal farmers and others living in the vicinity of forests. 

The estimated bamboo forest in Karnataka is about four lakhs hectares, out of which the annual 

production is about 100,000 tonnes of bamboo. The estimated demand for bamboo for selected few 

items in the State is 646,000 tonnes. Thus a short supply of 546,000 tonnes of bamboo is reported. 

Recommendations are made to increase the production of bamboo in the State. 

107. Madhav Gadgil; Narendra Prasad, S. Conservation of bamboo resources of Karnataka: 

Report on the State-wide availability of bamboo resources. Centre for Theoretical 

Studies, Bangalore: 13p. 

The report deals with the status of bamboo resources of Karnataka State and the impact of the 

industrial consumption on the resources. The need for raising bamboo plantations by paper mills is 

stressed. 

107a. Martin, M. 1996. Where have the groves gone? Down to Earth, June 15: 27-31 

108. McCormac, C.W. 1987. Economics for bamboo forestry research: Some suggested 

approaches. In: Rao, A.N, Dhanarajan, G and Sastry, C.B (Eds.). Recent Research on 

Bamboos: Proceedings of the International Bamboo Workshop, 6-14 October 1985, 

Kangshou, China. Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing and IDRC, Canada: 370-377. 

109. Mohanty, A.P. 1959. Bamboo resource of Orissa. Indian Forester 85(2): 115-118. 

A survey is carried out in Orissa to estimate the quantity of bamboo available for paper making. 

The method adopted for the survey and the results obtained are briefly discussed in this paper. 

110. Mooney, H.F. 1959. A report on the bamboo forests of Wallega Province (Abyssinia) 

with a view to their possible utilisation for paper and pulp. British Middle East Division, 

Addis Ababa: 8p. 

A descripion of ca. 2200 sq. miles of forest Oxytenanthera abyssinica. Assuming a yield of 5 tons 

air-dry culms per acre and a 4-year cutting cycle 24,000-30,000 acres would provide the 30,000 tons 

required for 10,000 tons of paper. With water also plentiful, the project is recommended for serious 

exploration. 

111. Moulik, S. 1997. The Grasses and Bamboos of India. 2 Vols. Scientific Publishers, 

Jodhpur: 700p. 

112. Nair, K.S. 1980. A base paper on bamboos in Kerala. Proceedings of the Third Southern 

Silviculturists and Forest Research Officers Conference, 3-5 March 1980, Dharwad. 

Karnataka Forest Department: 131-141. 

The paper deals with forest types of Kerala and the distribution of bamboos. Details about 

indigenous and exotic species, silviculture and agronomy, crop associations and regeneration, seed 

production and growth, natural regeneration and management, utilization, pests and diseases etc. are 

given. 

113. Nicholson, J.W. 1922. Report of the bamboo forests of the lower Mahanadi basin. Indian 

Forester 48(11): 607-608. 

A survey of the bamboo resources of the Angul Division and the neighbouring states is made to 

ascertain whether sufficient supplies of bamboo can be made available to the paper-pulp factory to be 

set up at Cuttack. The results of the survey are reported here. 

114. Ohrnberger, D. 1999. Bamboos of the World. Elsevier, The Netherlands. 585p. 

115. Pesantes Rebaza, M.A. 1985. Study on the possibilities to establish bamboo 

plantations for pulp and paper production in Pucallpa. Lima: 93p. Universidad Nacional 

Agraria, Lima, Facultad de Ciencias Forestales. 

14

116. Prasad, J. 1948. Silviculture of ten species of bamboo suitable for paper manufacture. 


A general description, distribution, habitat, growth, development, cultivation, felling methods, 

extraction, flowering, seeding and supplies of ten Indian bamboos, suitable for paper manufacture are 

presented. The species described are Dendrocalamus strictus, D. hamiltonii, D. longispathus, 

Bambusa polymorpha, B. arundinacea, B. tulda, Melocanna bambusoides, Neohouzeaua dullooa, 

Ochlandra travancorica and Oxytenanthera nigrociliata. 

117. Sagreiya, K.P; Khan, M.A.W; Chacko, V.J. 1961. Bamboo potential surveys. Proceedings 

of the Tenth Silvicultural Conference, 15-25 November 1961, Dehra Dun. Forest Research 

Institute and Colleges, Dehra Dun. 2: 840-843. 

For the full utilisation of the bamboo resources of the country and also for a planned development 

of paper-pulp industry, an investigation of the resources of bamboo is planned on all India basis. Here 

describes the techniques, procedure and objectives of the survey. 

118. Seethalakshmi, K.K; Kumar, M. 1998. Bamboos of India: A Compendium. Kerala Forest 

Research Institute, Peechi, Kerala, India and INBAR, Beijing, China: 342p. 

In this book 128 bamboo species found in India are described. In the introduction part, the 

bamboo is dealt with in general. There after 18 genera naturally occuring and cultivated in India are 

described. Morphology, flowering and fruiting, distribution and ecology, antomy and fibre 

characteristics, chemistry, silviculture and management, pests and diseases, physical and mechanical 

properties, natural durability and preservation and uses are given whereever information is available. 

Illustrations and photographs are profusely given. 

119. Shanmughavel, P; Francis, K; George, M. 1997. Plantation Bamboo. International Book 

Distributors, Dehra Dun, India: 191p. 

This book addresses techniques for bamboo cultivation in South and South East Asia. It is 

arranged in 13 chapters, and includes separate colour plates and a section at the end providing tables 

of data on various aspects of bamboo plantations and use. The first 5 chapters are introductory: (1) 

Introduction; (2) Distribution; (3) Taxonomy; (4) Ecological requirements; and (5) Growth 

characteristics. The remaining 8 chapters address plantation establishment, management and use: (6) 

Establishment and management - mostly sowing and planting stock production, with a small section on 

management; (7) Growth and development; (8) Biomass and yield; (9) Felling cycle and fertilizer 

application; (10) Introduction of social forestry - strip planting,community forestry, limitations, 

agroforestry, rehabilitation of degraded forest, afforestation, reclamation of waste land; (11) Need for 

raising bamboo plantation - with reference to use as raw material for the pulp and paper industry; (12) 

Problems andprospects of bamboo plantations - with regard to cultivation and socioeconomic aspects; 

and (13) Utilization - consumption pattern in India, and uses as parquet, laminates, in aircraft, concrete 

reinforcement, growing in artificial shapes, and as raw material for phytosterols. 

120. Sharma, Y.M.L. 1977. Random notes on bamboos of Asia and the Pacific. Forest News 

for Asia and the Pacific 1(2): 34-35. 

Author discusses briefly the important role of bamboo in the rural economy. The species of 

bamboo used much by the people and in paper industry are also listed. 

121. Sharma, Y.M.L. 1982. Some aspects of bamboo in Asia and the Pacific. RAPA, Bangkok, 

Thailand: 56p. 

122. Singh, S. 1973. The cheapest, quickest and surest way to solve raw material shortage 

problem for pulp and paper industries in India. Indian Pulp and Paper 27(12/9): p20. 

Draws attention to the declining yield of bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus) from successive felling 

cycles in many of the Indian deciduous hardwood forests and to the consequent increasing shortage of 

raw materials for pulp and paper manufacture in India, and suggests silvicultural measures for 

achieving a rapid improvement in bamboo recruitment. 

15

123. Surendran, P.N. Status paper on Kerala man-made forests: 5p. 

124. Tewari, D.N. 1992. A Monograph on Bamboo. International Book Distributors, Dehra Dun, 

India: 172p. 

This book provides a comphrehensive review and bibliography of all aspects of bamboos with 

particular emphasis on India and is presented in 13 chapters: (1) Introduction - including brief accounts 

of the current status of bamboo utilization and of proposed research programmes; (2) Distribution of 

bamboos in the world; (3) Bamboos in India; (4) Bamboo taxonomy; (5) Silviculture and management 

of bamboos in India; (6) Genetic improvement; (7) Growth, yield and economics; (8) Utilisation of 

bamboos; (9) Bamboo products; (10) Pulp and paper manufacture; (11) Insect pests of bamboos; (12) 

Diseases and decay of bamboo; and (13) General bibliography on bamboo. A subject index is 

included. 

125. Uppin, S.F. 1964. A note on Bambusa arundinacea in the leased area of the West Coast 

Paper Mills Ltd; Dandeli in Kanara Northern Division, Mysore State. All India Bamboo 

Study Tour and Symposium 1963-64, Dehra Dun. Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun: 

187-196. 

A note on the bamboo Bambusa arundinacea in the leased area of the West Coast paper Mill, 

Dandeli of Mysore state is given in this paper. Some of the observations made on the flowering pattern 

of the species are also presented. Cost of planting bamboo seedlings is calculated. 

126. Venkatappa Setty, K.R. 1962. Management and Exploitation of Bamboos (Paper for the 

Diploma of Associate of Indian Forest College, Dehra Dun). Indian Forest College, Dehra 

Dun: 84p. 

A brief account of silviculture, management and exploitation of bamboos with reference to Mysore 

State is given. Bambusa arundinacea, Dendrocalamus strictus, Oxytenanthera monostigma, Ochlandra 

travancorica and Oxytenanthera stocksii are the species reported from the State. To meet the local 

demand as well as the requirement of paper industries it is suggested to save bamboo forests 

departmental working of the bamboo forests is to be encouraged. The influence of bamboo flowering 

on the supply of bamboos for paper mills is also discussed. Bamboos from the forests are exploited by 

various agencies like department, contractors, permit holders, etc. and a comparative study of the 

working of bamboo by these agencies are studied. A working scheme for supply of bamboos for the 

West Coast Paper mills, Dandeli is worked out. 

127. Waheed khan, M.A. 1972. Creation of bamboo forests for paper industry in Madhya 

Pradesh. IPPTA Seminar, Dehra Dun: p4. 

National Newsprint and Paper Mills, Nepanagar and Orient Paper Mills, Amlai are the main 

pulpwood consuming industries in Madhya Pradesh. Large scale bamboo plantations are raised 

around Nepanagar by the Forest Department for meeting the demand for raw material. The author 

suggests here necessary changes to be made in raising bamboo plantations for the mills in the State. 

128. Waheed khan, M.A. 1972. Management of bamboo forests in Madhya Pradesh as 

producers of raw material for pulp and paper industry. IPPTA Seminar, Dehra Dun: p5. 

It is predicted that the bamboo areas will become totally unproductive if the present system of 

protection and management continues unchecked and unattended. Measures to be taken to halt 

degradation of bamboo forests and to revive their full production are suggested. 

129. Yang, X.S; Shi, Q.T; Huang, Y.C; Liang, W.Y; Lin, Y.F. 1999. The effect of silvicultural 

management on the production of moso bamboo plantations for pulp-making. Forest 

Research 12(3): 268-274. 

A series of tests on pulpwood production in moso bamboo (Phyllostachys pubescens) stands were 

conducted systematically in Anji County (Zhejiang Province), Shaowu County (Fujian Province) and 

Fengxin County (Jiangxi Province) in China. The silvicultural practices established were used in 

establishing a 20 hm2 high-yield model stand of moso bamboo for pulpwood production. The 

productivity of moso bamboo stands was determined by habitat and management, with significant 

differences found between different management regimes, site qualities or status of the original 

16

amboo stand. A bamboo forest in an undesirable state on a poor site could be guided towards an 

ideal or normal state by using measures such as loosening the soil, fertilizing, felling, adjusting stand 

structure, etc. A management model is proposed which involves suiting silvicultural measures to local 

conditions and classifying management actions to improve stand economics/yields. 

130. Yuan, Y.P; Xiao, J.H; Chen, H.L; Zhu, W.S. 1999. New management type of 

Phyllostachys pubescens forest. Journal of Zhejiang Forestry College 16(3): 270-273. 

Bamboo for Pulp, Paper and Rayon 

131. Adkoli, N.S. 1992. Bamboo in pulp production. Proceedings of the National Seminar on 

Bamboos, 19-20 December 1990, Bangalore. Bamboo Society of India, Bangalore: 45-52. 

The present availability of the raw material bamboo for production of pulp and paper is assessed 

and an attempt is made to analyse the proposals made in the revised forest policy of 1988 regarding 

the supply of raw material to industries. Availabilityof wastelands for bamboo plantations, investments 

and efforts needed to raise such plantations are described. 

132. Adkoli, N.S. 1994. Bamboo in Indian pulp industry. Bamboo in Asia and the Pacific. 

Proceedings of the Fourth International Bamboo Workshop, Chiangmai, Thailand. (FORSPA 

Publication: 6) International Development Research Centre and FORSPA, Bangkok, 

Thailand, Canada: 250-254. 

Author presents an overview of the raw material, bamboo in Indian pulp industry. The annual 

output of bamboo is estimated about 4.6 million tonnes of which about 1.9 million tonnes is reported to 

be used by pulp industries. Three main species of bamboos, Dendrocalamus strictus, Bambusa 

arundinacea and Melocanna baccifera are reported to constitute 83 percent of the total growing stock. 

Bamboo is reported to be used for pulp and paper since 1936. Use of bamboo for pulping is reported to 

be declined from 73.5 percent in 1952 to 26.53 percent in 1988. One rayon-grade pulp mill uses 

bamboo as part of raw material. Shortage of about 20.28 million tonnes of raw material by the year 

2015 for pulp and newsprint production is predicted. Bamboo yield can be increased 4 to 5 times in 

about 5-6 years if scientific harvesting, protection to clumps from fire, grazing and biotic influences, 

silvicultural tending of clumps are taken care of. The need of raising bamboo plantations in wastelands 

for increasing the supply of bamboo for various purposes including pulp industries is stressed. 

133. Azzini, A. 1980. Agronomic aspects of industrial production of bamboo. Papel 41: 

87-95. 

Bamboo is examined in detail with regard to:botanic classification; anatomical and agronomic 

characteristics; vegetative propagation; flowering and fruiting; sexual propagation; production (effect of 

spacing, cutting system and fertilizer application); potential as a raw material for paper making (fibre 

dimensions and kraft pulp yields and strength properties); chemical composition; and potential as a 

source of alcohol. 

134. Bamboo for paper mills. Myforest 12(2). 1976: 88-90. 

Allotment of bamboo forests for paper mills of Karnataka is discussed and estimated the yield of 

bamboo from the bamboo forests. 

135. Beri, R.M; Karnik, M.G; Pharasi, S.C. 1967. A note on Dowga bamboo wax. Indian forester 

93(3): 188-189. 

Dowga bamboo, Bambusa arundinacea Willd. West Coast Paper Mills Ltd at Dandeli uses Dowga 

bamboo as a supplementary raw materials for paper making. They find this species contains a certain 

amount of waxin which makes the bamboo difficult to cut in to uniform chips during the culling action 

and does not permit proper penetration of chemicals during cooking. 

136. Bhargava, M.P. 1945. Bamboo for pulp and paper manufacture. Part I - III. Indian Forest 

Bulletin (N.S.) Utilization 129. 

17

Part I gives an account of investigations from 1860 to 1944 and an outline of future investigations. 

Part II deals with the digestion of bamboo, and part III with its proximate chemical analyses. A series 

of appendixes give data on semi-commercial pulping tests, strength properties of kraft pulps, annual 

Indian production of papers, and proximate chemical analyses of the following species:- 

Dendrocalamus strictus(of 8 provenances and various stages of development), D. hamiltonii, D. 

longispathus, Melocanna bambusoides, Bambusa arundinacea, B. polymorpha, B. tulda, Ochlandra 

travancorica, Oxytenanthera nigrociliata and Teinostachyum dullooa. 

137. Bhargava, M.P; Chattar Singh. 1942. Interim report on the pulping qualities of crushed 

and uncrushed bamboo chips. Indian Forest Bulletin (N.S.) Utilization. 112: 13p 

Samples of chips from Dendrocalamus strictus, (1) crushed, (2) partially : crushed, and (3) 

uncrushed, were tested for uniformity, bleachability and pulp yield under the same conditions of 

digestion. The most satisfactory in every way was (1), but from a practical point of view, thorough or 

even partial crushing of Bamboo stems has the disadvantages that power consumed is high, and size 

of crushed chips is more irregular and uneven that that of chips obtained by oblique chipping. An ideal 

method would be to cut the Bamboo into more or less uniform chips and crush the chips, so that the 

bundle sheaths of the fibro-vascular bundles would be loosened and separated out from the ground 

tissues and their rigidity reduced, thus giving an easier and quicker penetration of the cooking liquors. 

It is doubtful, however, whether such a method is practicable. 

138. Bourdillon, T.F. 1899. More information about bamboos. Indian Forester 25(4): 152-154. 

This article is a continuation of author's earlier comments on the article Indian bamboos by D. 

Brandis which presents some useful information like growth and flowering of bamboos and its use for 

pulp and paper. 

139. Chang, F.J; Duh, M.H. 1978. Utilization of bamboo residue for pulp and paper making. 

Quarterly Journal of Chinese Forestry 11(3): 51-68. 

140. Chen, W.L. 1958. Newest kraft pulp and paper mill in Formosa uses bamboo. Paper 

Trade Journal 142(36): 40-46. 

Describes the preparation of raw material, layout, equipment and methods at the mill of the 

Longlived Pulp and Paper Corp. Ltd., at Chu Nan. Species successfully used are Phyllostachys 

retuculata, P. edulis, Bambusa stenostachya and Dendrocalamus latiflorus. 

141. Ciaramello, D. 1970. Bamboo as a papermaking raw material: Study of processes for 

cooking material from Bambusa tuldoides Munro. Bragantia 29(2): 11-22. 

142. Ciaramello, D; Azzini, A. 1971. Bamboo as a raw material for paper. Papel 32: 33-40. 

Compare Bambusa vulgaris, B. var. vittata, and B. oldhami for kraft pulping. B. oldhamii had the 

shortest fibres, but was the best suited to kraft pulping, giving the highest yields and pulps with the 

lowest permanganate number. 

143. Correa de A; Luz, C.N.R; Frazao, F.J.L. 1977. Papermaking characteristics of the 

bamboos of the State of Acre, Brazil. Acta Amazonica 7(4): 529-550 

The bamboos, known locally as tabocas, comprise Guadua angustifolia, G. glomerata, G. morim, 

G. superba and Nastus [Cenchrus] amazonicus. Data are given on the physical characteristics of the 

woods and on the properties of chemical, semichemical, chemimechanical and mechanical pulps 

derived from them. It is concluded that Acre bamboos can be used to make pulp and paper, especially 

for the manufacture of paperboard. 

143a. Despande, P.R. 1953. Indian Pulp and Paper 8(3): 167. 

144. Dhondiyal, S.N; Bahadur, O; Mathur, G.M. 1973. Pulping of freshly flowered bamboo. 

Forestry Product Conference, Dehra Dun. 

145. Dobriyal, P.B; Satish Kumar. 1991. Utilization of bamboo in pulp and paper. Vigyanik. 

18

146. El Bassam, N; Jakob, K. 1996. Bamboo - A new source for raw materials. First 

experimental results. Landbauforschung- Volkenrode 46(2): 76-83. 

147. Escolano, J.O; Semana, J.A. 1970. Bag and wrapping papers from Kayuan - Kiling 

(Bambusa vulgaris Schrad). The Philippine Lumberman 16(5): 36-40. 

Kauayan-kiling (Bambusa vulgaris Schrad) pulped by the sulfate process, using an active alkali of 

15.6 gave a screened yield of 41.4 and permanganate No. of 15.0. The pulp produced was 

characterized by very high tearing resistance but low bursting strengh. The folding and tensile 

strengths were within the range of imported commercial kraft pulps which were tested and used as 

standards. The experimental bag and wrapping papers, produced from this pulp were higher in tearing 

resistance but lower in burst, folds and tensile strengths, compared with those of commercial papers 

tested at the Institute. However, when beater adhesives such as starch, guar gum and locust-beam 

gum were incorporated in pulp furnishes, the burst, folds and tensile strengths were considerably 

improved, producing high quality bag and wraping papers.The resulting papers gave strength 

properties superior to those of the commercial papers tested, and exceeded the U.S. Federal 

Specifications. 

148. Forest Products Research and Development Institute. 1962. Bamboo for pulp and paper 

making. FPRDI, Philippines. Technical Note No. 28: 5p. 

149. Frison, E. 1951. Bamboo and the problem of paper manufacture in the Belgian Congo. 

Bull. Agric. Congo Belg. 42(4): 965-986. 

Discusses (1) the suitability of Bambusa vulgaris and Oxytenanthera abyssinica for pulp 

manufacture, and (2) possible supplies of bamboo and hardwoods for pulp manufacture in the Belgian 

Congo. 

150. Fukuyama, G; Kawase, K. 1955. Production of furfural from `Sasa'. II. Production of 

furfural and plup from `Sasa'. Research Bulletin of Experimental Forestry, Hokkaido 

University, Japan 17(2): 383-438. 

(1) The highest yield of furfural obtained (11.6%) in these tests was when 100g. of Kumazasa 

[Sasa albo-marginata] were autoclaved with 1 litre of 1.5 % H2SO4 at 80 lb./sq. in. for 3 hours. (2) 

When 200 g. of chips were autoclaved with 1 litre of 0.5 % H2SO4 under various conditions, 58-65% of 

the residue was found suitable for pulp. When the extraction liquor, adjusted to 1.5 % H2SO4, was 

autoclaved at 80 lb./sq. in. for 3 hours, a yield of furfural 5.4-6.7% of the oven-dry weight of the chips 

was obtained. 

151. Garg, R.K; Sharma, R.K; Kothari, R.M. 1998. Some insight on the death of bamboo after 

flowering. Indian Forester 124(5): 342-346. 

After vegetative growth from rhizomes for a period of 50-80 yr, clumps of the bamboo 

Dendrocalamus strictus in a particular area undergo flowering, setting free enormous quantities of 

seeds and die synchronously. Changes in some major chemical constituents (alpha-cellulose, 

hemicellulose, reducing sugars, starch, lignin, moisture and ash) of stems were monitored at different 

stages of the flowering process in specimens from 5 compartments of the Fulchera area of 

Bhamragarh Forest Division, Maharashtra, in March (at the start of flowering) and May (after flowering) 

1994. This was done because there is some evidence in the literature that plant composition may be 

related to bamboo mortality after flowering. The analyses suggested that bamboo death may have 

been caused by excessive deprivation of reducing sugars and moisture content, leading to loss in 

vitality and osmotic shock along with toxicity generated by an enormous increase in lignin content. 

152. Guha, S.R.D. 1960. Bamboo for pulp and paper manufacture - a summary of 

investigation at the Forest Research Institute Dehra Dun. ECAFE-FAO-BTAO 

Conference on Pulp and Paper Development in Asia and the far East, October, 1960. 

153. Guha, S.R.D. 1960. Bamboo pulping in India. ECAFE-FAO-BTAO Conference on Pulp 

and Paper Development in Asia and the far East, 17-31 October 1960. 

19

154. Guha, S.R.D. 1961. Bamboo as a raw material for paper and board making. Indian Buyer 

1(2). 

155. Guha, S.R.D. 1962. Bamboo for pulp and paper manufacture. A summary of the 

investigations at the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun. In: FAO Pulp and Paper 

Prospects in Asia and the far East Vol.2. 

156. Guha, S.R.D. 1962. Bamboo pulping in India. In: FAO, Pulp and Paper Prospects in Asia 

and the far East Vol.2. 

157. Hunter, I.R. 2002. Writing on bamboo. INBAR News Magazine 9(1): p14. 

158. International Network for Bamboo and Rattan. 1977. Bamboo for pulp and paper. INBAR 

News Magazine 5(3): p29. 

159. Istas, J.R; Heremans, R; Raekaelboom, E.L. 1956. The paper making qualities of some 

bamboos grown in the Belgium Congo. Bulletin Agriculture Congo belge 47(5): 

1299-1325. 

Tabulates the mineral, cellulose and lignin composition and the fibre dimensions of 10 exotic 

bamboos, from culm samples of different age and, in one species, from 3 different soils. Also 

tabulated are the properties of the pulps and papers prepared from some of them, using 3 methods of 

cooking. Good sulphate pulps are obtainable but, except in tearing strength, the resulting papers are 

inferior to those of a medium-quality kraft. It is possible that pressure-impregnation cooking would 

improve quality. Bambusa vulgaris and its var. striata gave the best pulps. Sasa kurilensis and S. 

japonica do not appear suitable for unbleached pulp. Three months of water storage did not reduce 

Dinoderus attack. Though one-year culms are usable, it is better to use older ones. Soil affects paper 

quality and more investigations of the effect of site are required. In addition to those mentioned, the 

samples included Dendrocalamus strictus, Gigantochloa ater, Ochlandra travancorica (for all of which 

pulp and paper data are presented), Dendrocalamus longispathus, Gigantochloa apus and G. 

varticillata. 

160. Istas, J.R; Raekaelboom, E.L. 1962. A biometric, chemical and paper making study of 

Congo bamboos. Publ. Inst. Nat. Etude Agron. Congo (Ser. Tech.) No. 67: 53p. 

Gives data on wood density, fibre characteristics, chemistry, cooking schedules and pulp and 

paper properties of (a) Bambusa vulgaris, (b) Oxytenanthera abyssinica, (c) Arundinaria alpina, and (d) 

Gigantochloa aspera, with general notes on production, storage, addition of hardwood or softwood pulp 

to improve pulp quality, etc. The best papermaking pulps were got from (a) which can be cut, on a 2year 

cycle to produce 50 tons of culms/ha. A good yield of pulp, inferior in quality to that of the other 

species is obtained from (b); (c) appears best suited for the (weaker) bleached pulps, and (d) gives 

pulps similar in quality to those of (a). 

161. Jamaludin K; Jalil A.A; Abd. Latif Mohmod. 1993. Pulp and papermaking properties of 1-, 

2- and 3-year old Gigantochloa scortechinii. Bamboo and its Use. International 

Symposium on Industrial Use of Bamboo, 7-11 December 1992, Beijing, China. Inernational 

Tropical Timber Organization, Beijing: 264-273. 

The effects of age, active alkali and beating revolutions on the pulping characteristics of one to 

three years old Gigantochloa scortechinii were determined and the results are discussed in this paper. 

The proximate chemical analysis and fiber morphology are also determined. The fibers of the bamboo 

are long about 3.0 - 3.7 mm with thick cell wall of 7µ m. It is reported that the high Runkel and low 

flexibility ratio which imply to its unsuitability for papermaking can be compensated by the high 

slenderness ratio and high holo-cellulose content. The low ash content in G. scortechnii is beneficial to 

the pulping process. Pulp properties of one to three year old bamboo shows satisfactory strength 

properties. 

162. Joglekar, M.H; Donofrio, C.P. 1951. Disolving pulp from bamboos. TAPPI Journal 34(6). 

20

163. Kiang, T; Lin, W.C. 1978. A research on bamboo resources in Sabah [including 

potential uses and processing facilities]. Quarterly Journal of Chinese Forestry 11(3): 

17-33. 

164. Kitamura, H; Sakamoto, I; Nagashima, T. 1974. On the quadrangular bamboo culms - 

Forms of culms and the anatomy, with special reference to their fibres and vascular 

bundles. Bulletin of the Utsunomiya University Forests No. 11: 71-86. 

Bamboo square in section can be grown artificially; in Japan Phyllostachys heterocycla f. 

pubescens is usually chosen because of the thickness of its culm. Square culms of P.h.f. pubescens 

were produced by placing a wooden frame round each sprout and forcing it to grow inside. The form of 

the culms, the size of the vascular bundles and the characteristics of the fibres and parenchyma cells 

were investigated in comparison with normal culms. Internode length was shorter than in a normal 

culm. Vascular bundles with values of

173. Maheshwari, S; Satpathy, K.C. 1984. Pulp and papermaking characteristics of bamboos 

of different age. Indian Pulp and Paper 38(4). 

174. Maheshwari, S; Satpathy, K.C. 1984. Studies on pulp and paper-making characteristics 

of bamboo of different ages. Indian Pulp and Paper 38. 

175. Maheshwari, S; Satpathy, K.C. 1988. Pulp and papermaking characteristics of nodes, 

internodes and culm of bamboo, Dendrocalamus strictus. IPPTA 25(1): 15-19. 

This paper deals with the evaluation of nodes and internodes of D. strictus and comparison of their 

pulp and paper making properties. The study reveals that nodal and internodal portions of bamboo 

culm differ in their chemical constituents. Internodal portion of bamboo has higher holocellulose and 

lower pentosions, extractives, ash and lignin compared to nodal portion. The pulp yield is lower with 

more rejects in case of nodal portion. The chemical requirement and bleachability are same under the 

identical conditions. The bleached pulp viscocity is lower in case of pulp from nodal portion. The fibre 

morphological characters and Bauer Mc Nett classification results show that pulp from nodal portion 

has comparatively lower fiber length than internodal portion. The strength properties of bleached pulp 

of nodal portion are comparatively lower. As such bamboo culm show the intermediate trend in all the 

properties. 

176. Maheshwari, S; Satpathy, K.C. 1988. The efficient utilization of bamboo for pulp and 

paper making. In: Bamboos: Current Research. Proceedings of the International Bamboo 

Workshop, 14-18 November 1988, Cochin, India (edited by Rao, I.V.R., Gnanaharan, R., 

Sastry, C.B), Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi and IDRC, Canada. 

The pulping characteristics of (a) bamboo of different ages (b) different portions of the culm and 

(c) a few common varieties of bamboo are studied and the results are discussed. Effective methods of 

proper handling and storage of bamboo are also suggested. 

177. Mai-Aung, U; Fleury, J.E. 1960. Breakthrough in bamboo pulping. Pulp and Paper 

International 2(5): 21-23. 

178. Matsui, Z. 1963. On the ecological and silvicultural treatment of Sasa bamboo and its 

industrial utilisation in Hokkaido. Annul Report of Forest Experimental Station, Hokkaido, 

Japan: 186-229. 

On account of the importance of Sasa bamboo (including Sasa, Sasamorpha and 

Neosasamorpha) for forestry in Hokkaido. It is estimated that 70 of the forest undergrowth is 

composed of Sasa s.l. The larger species (e.g. Sasa kurilensis) provide a raw material for pulp and 

chipboard, yielding 50-60 tons/ha. when clear-cut before afforestation. Smaller species (e.g. S. 

nipponica) are used as fodder. Utilization costs are tabulated. All species supress the regeneration of 

useful trees: the power of regrowth of different species after weeding and other control methods under 

experimental conditions is recorded. 

179. Mazzei, F.M; Rediko, B.V.P. 1967. Pulp for paper making from bamboo. Publicacao, 

Instituto de Pesquisas Technologicas, Sao Paulo, No. 796: 7p. 

Describes trials in the sulphate pulping of 1- to 5-year-old culms of Bambusa vulgaris, B. vulgaris 

var. vittata, and B. tuldoides, the most common Bamboos found in southern Brazil. Preliminary results 

indicate that high yields and pulp of good quality, especially as regards tearing strength, can be 

obtained. One-year-old culms gave the best results. 

180. McGorovern, J.N. 1967. Progress and problems in production of pulp from bamboo. 

Paper Trade Journal 151: 33-35. 

181. Medina, J.C; Ciaramello, D. 1965. The effect of culm age on the paper making qualities 

of Bambusa vulgaris. Bergantia Compinas 24(32): 411-435. 

Culms (from 15 years-old clumps at Campinas, Brazil) ranging from 1 to 4 years in age were 

pulped by the soda process. The effect of culm age on pulp yield was singnificant at the 5 level for 2year-old 

culms only. No effect on tearing, tensile, or folding strength could be attributed to culm age. 

22

Paper from 2-year-old culms; however, had a significantly higher bursting strength. Pulps were in 

general highly porous. B. vulgaris can produce paper in tearing strength. From the industrial 

standpoint no advantage is gained by selecting culms of a particular age. 

182. Mukherjea, V.N. 1967. Utilisation of bamboos for cheap grade paper. Indian Pulp and 

Paper 22(3): 181-186. 

Discusses an investigation on the efficiency of a binary pulping process (patented) for bamboo 

(Dendrocalamus strictus). The chips (dry or steamed) are disintergrated by a kollergang or a refiner, 

and separated by screening into (a) prosenchymatous and (b) parenchymatous tissues. These tissues 

are pulped separately, (a) by the sulphate process and (b) mechanically. The pulps are then mixed to 

obtain the maximum yield of paper of acceptable strength. It is concluded from the results (tabulated) 

of 10 different experimental treatments of (a) and (b) that: a yield of satisfactory pulp of up to 75 (based 

on oven-dry chips) is obtainable; pulping procedures that give yields of ca. 40-45 bleached chemical 

pulp from (a) and ca. 29-25 mechanical pulp from (b), enabling pulp mixtures with >50 chemical pulp 

to be used, are recommended; chips should be steamed; and a refiner is more suitable than a 

kollergang, both for disintegrating chips and for grinding (b). 

183. Nomura, T. 1999. Bamboo utilization in Myanmar. Wood Research No. 86: 9-18. 

The role of bamboo in Myanmar, smoke drying and use in pulping and charcoal manufacture are 

outlined. 

184. Ono, K. 1996. Tropical bamboo for remarkable pulp resources. Nippon Nogeikagaku 

Kaishi 70(4): 469-474. 

Including brief data on Gigantochloa apus, Bambusa vulgaris, G. nigro-ciliata, G. verticillata. 

185. Papers from the First National Bamboo Symposium-Workshop, 27th February and 1st 

March, 1989. Sylvatrop 13(1/2). 1988: 93p. 

Ten papers are presented in this symposium-workshop which was sponsored by the Philippines 

Bamboo Research and Development Project. The project was started in 1987 by the Philippines 

Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau (formerly the Forest Research Institute), assisted by 

UNDP, and with FAO as the executing agency. The primary function of the 5-yr project is 

experimental/pilot plantation establishment and associated research, and the aims are to create new 

sources of employment and income inrural areas of the country. 

186. Pearson, R.S. 1912. Note on the utilization of bamboo for the manufacture of paperpulp. 

Indian Forest Records: 4(5): 159-277 

An investigation is carried out to see the possibility of manufacturing pulp from bamboos. The 

report deals with areas from which bamboos could be exploited easily for the purpose of manufacturing 

pulp in Burma and West Coast of India. The places are inspected and figures of yield are also given. 

Possible sites for bamboo paper-pulp mills in the Bombay and Madras presidency are also given. A 

history of work carried out with a view of ascertaining the possibility of manufacturing paper-pulp from 

bamboo is also given. General conditions necessary for the successful establishment of a paper-pulp 

mill and the mode of growth and the possible outturn are also discussed. Flowering, felling, cost of 

extraction and cost of manufacturing bamboo paper-pulp are also briefly discussed. Cost of plant 

required for a mill and the chemicals available are also discussed. 

187. Pearson, R.S. 1920. The utilisation of bamboo for the manufacture of paper-pulp. 


Suitable areas for extracting bamboos for pulp and paper in India and Burma are recorded in this 

paper. Descriptions of the bamboo forests, means of transporting the extracted bamboo, cost of cutting 

and extraction and possible factory sites are also discussed. 

188. Pearson, R.S. 1920. The utilization of bamboo for the manufacture of paper-pulp. Indian 

Forester 46(11): 547-561. 

23

A brief review of pre-and post-war conditions of the utilisation of bamboo for the manufacture of 

paper-pulp is given by the author. Descriptions of some of the bamboo areas in Burma and India are 

also given. 

189. Seabra, L-de. 1954. Bamboos in the pulping industry. Estude Ensaios e Dpcum. Junta 

Invest. Ultramar, Lisboa 13: 91p. 

Presents some general information on the characteristics of bamboo compared with other papermaking 

species (viz. size and shape of fibres, chemical properties of the wood and cellulose, and the 

industrial value of bamboo pulps) and gives the results of preliminary trials with Oxytenanthera 

abyssinica from Mozambique and Guinea to determine its suitability for commercial pulping. The 

investigations deal with the dimensions of the fibres, the chemical properties of the sawdust and of 

pulps, and the physical and mechanical properties of the pulps. It is concluded that pulps from these 

African bamboos have properties equal or superior to Indian bamboo pulps, but more data is needed 

before they can be recommended for commercial production. 

190. Shanmughavel, P. 1995. Bambusa bambos - an ideal species for commercial 

plantation. International Tree Crops Journal 8(4): 203-212. 

Over-exploitation and shrinkage of their natural habitats is depleting the bamboo resource in India 

at an alarming rate. Sustained availability can be ensured only by plantations. This paper describes the 

establishment, growth and biomass production of a trial plantation of Bambusa bambos at Kallipatty, 

Tamil Nadu. This proved to be an ideal species for large-scale plantations. Pulp characteristics 

including proximate chemical analysis data for 1-6 yr old culms, utilization and economic aspects, costs 

and returns from a 6-yr-old plantation are discussed. 

191. Sheikh, M.A. 1983. The environmental aspects of using bamboo in the manufacture of 

pulp and paper in Bangladesh. Industry and Environment 6(1): 14-17. 

192. Sindall, R.W. 1909. Bamboo for Papermaking. Marchant Singer & Co, London: 59p. 

An account of the results of the experimental work done for the conversion of bamboo into paper 

is given here. It reports that the utilization of bamboo as a regular source of supply for paper pulp was 

initiated in 1870. It attempts to collect the available data on bamboo pulping and present it in a 

condensed form. It is also discussed the habit and growth, flowering, propagation of bamboos and the 

supply of the material to the paper mills. Bamboo is found to be suitable for paper making as it is 

capable of standing considerable wear and tear. A small plant capable of making 8-12 tons of bamboo 

pulp is erected and the method of working of this plant is described. Table is provided to show the 

behaviour of bamboo paper when compared with an ordinary super-calendered printing of similar 

quality. Plant required for a paper mill having a weekly output of 200 tons of unbleached pulp is also 

discussed. 

193. Singh, S.V; Bhandari, S.S; Singh, S.P. 1989. Organosolve pulping of Dendrocalamus 

strictus and Eucalyptus tereticornis with aquous ethanol. Paper presented in the IPPTA 

Silver Jubilee International Seminar and Workshop on Appropriate Technologies for Pulp 

and Paper Manufacture in Developing Countries. 1989, New Delhi. 

194. Singh, S.V; Guha, S.R.D. 1981. Indian experience of papermaking from bamboo. 

Proceedings of Bamboo Production and Utilization XVII IUFRO World Congress, 6-17 

September 1981, Kyoto, Japan. Wood Research Institute, Kyoto University, Kyoto: 33-38. 

This paper gives a brief account of various kinds of bamboos occurring in India and of the 

chemical and morphological characteristics of major species used for paper making. Research carried 

out on pulping and bleaching, effect of morphological characteristics and sheet properties, beating 

properties and decay on storage and its effect on pulp properties are reviewed. A brief description 

about industrial paper making is also given. 

195. Stracey, P.D. 1957. The rational utilisation of India's cellulosic raw materials with 

particular reference to Assam. Indian Forester 83(4): 253-259. 

Author brings out the importance of the vast untapped reserve of bamboos in Assam in the light of 

the country's potential requirements. 

24

196. Suleiman, K.M. 1994. Bamboo as a source of long fiber pulp in Pakistan. Pakistan 

Journal of Forestry 44(3): 130-135. 

Three bamboo species (Dendrocalamus hamiltonii, D. strictus, Bambusa tulda) were pulped 

successfully by the soda process. D. hamiltonii gave the highest yield and best tearing strength 

properties - which were comparable to those of kraft pulp from Pinus roxburghii and imported Southern 

pine kraft pulp. However, the bonding properties of bamboo pulp were inferior to those of softwood 

kraft pulp. The advantages of using bamboos for pulpwood production and pulping are outlined. 

197. Susuki, S. 1977. The range of the genus Sasa Makino et Shibata, S. quelpratensis and 

S. chartacea. Hikobia 8(1/2): 165-167. 

Septate fibres were found to occur in Dendrocalamus latiflorus, Phyllostachys edulis, 

Schizostachyum brachycladum and Oxytenanthera abyssinica. Their characteristics and fine structure 

are described and illustrated with electron micrographs. 

198. Tissot, M. 1970. Bamboo as raw material for the Indian paper industry. Bios. For. Trop. 

129: 21-45. 

Discusses the problems of making pulp and paper from bamboo on the basis of a study of four 

Indian mills at which bamboo (mainly Dendrocalamus strictus) is being successfully used, although the 

pulps have relatively poor mechanical properties. The cooking processes used (kraft, sulphate and 

neutral sulphite) are reviewed, details of the bleaching and refining procesures are given, and the 

solutions devised to overcome problems of blade wear and the presence of Si are described. Data on 

costs of the raw material and pulps are included. 

199. Tshiamala T. 1984. The technology of bamboo as raw material for the paper industries 

and fermentation industries. Gembloux, Belgium. Faculte des Sciences Agronomiques de 

l' Etat, Gembloux: 174p. 

200. Tshiamala, T; Mottet, A; Fraipont, L; Thonart, P; Paquot, M. 1985. The Bamboo: Raw 

material for Paper Industries or Fermentation Industries. Energy from biomass: 3rd E.C. 

conference, held Venice 25-29 March 1985. Elsevier Applied Science Publishers, London, 

UK: 1122-1125. 

A summary of published work including the characteristics of pulps produced by sulphate, sulphite, 

lime and thermomechanical methods. 

201. Tutiya, M; Hukuhara, S; Kato, Y. 1941. Bamboos in Taiwan as a raw material for pulp. 

Part V. Journal of Agric. Chem. Soc. Japan 17: 479-482. 

202. Tutiya, M; Imai, M. 1940. Researches on bamboo in Taiwan as a raw material for pulp. 

Part IV. On the ashes and some characters of pulps and alpha-cellulose obtained by 

different digesting methods. Journal of Agric. Chem. Soc. Japan 16: 126-129, 755-760. 

203. Ukil, T. 1961. Bamboo and its paper making value. Zellstoff 4. Papier 10(4): 149-151. 

204. Villavicencio, E.J. 1990. Process for making a pulp from bamboo. Makati, Metro Manila, 

Philippines, Philippine Patents Office. Process Evaluation and Development Corporation, 

Dallas, Texas, Delaware: 18p. 

Bamboo can be formed into a suitable pulp if prior to digestion, it undergoes a process of 

shredding, washing, and wet depithing. The fibers are then chemically digested preferably by a 

process which uses rapid pressure drops to open the fibers using the energy contained in the wet 

superheated fibers. 

205. Vincent, H. 1911. Bamboo pulp as the paper material of the future. Indian Forester 

37(11): 627-630. 

The advantages of using bamboo pulp as the paper material are pointed out by the author. 

25

206. Virtucio, F.D; Uriate, M.T; Uriate, N.S. 1992. Pulp yield and physico-mechanical 

properties of six Philippine bamboo species and the implications on optimal 

harvesting age. Proceedings of the Second National Bamboo Research and Development 

Symposium, College, Laguna 14th December 1990. Ecosystems Research and 

Development Bureau, College, Laguna, United Nations Development Programme, Makati, 

Metro Manila, Food and Agriculture, Manila: 78-92. 

The effect of culm age on pulp yield and some physico-mechanical properties of six important 

bamboo species: kauayan tinik (Bambusa blumeana), bayog (B. blumeana var. luzonensis), grant 

bamboo (Dendrocalamus asper), bolo (Gigantochloa levis), buho (Schizostachyum lumampao) and 

kauayan kiling (Bambusa vulgaris) were studied. The study revealed that there was considerable 

variation with regard to specific gravity, shrinkage, compressive strength, stress at proportional limit, 

modulus of rupture, modulusof elasticity, and pulp yield among the six bamboo species relative to culm 

age. In general, the maximum physico-mechanical properties and pulp yield were attained between 

pulp ages of 2 to 5 years-old which could provide a vital information in determining the optimum culm 

age for harvesting which vary among the six bamboo species. 

207. Waheed Khan, M.A. 1972. Sporadic and gregarious bamboo flowering in relation to 

pulpwood production and management. IPPTA Seminar, Dehra Dun: 2 p. 

The paper discusses sporadic and gregarious flowering of bamboos and the methods of 

management of the flowered areas. 

208. Wai, N.N; Murakami, K. 1983. Papermaking characteristics of Burmese bamboo 

Bambusa polymorpha fiber in comparison with wood fiber. Journal of the Japan Wood 

Research Society 29(10): 708-715. 

209. Wilson, J; Hayes, M.H.B; Schallinger, K.M. 1983. Bamboo, grown on blanket peats, as a 

raw material for cellulosic pulp. Proceedings of the Second International Symposium: 

Peat in Agriculture and Horticulture. Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel: 

223-239. 

The bamboo varieties Arundinaria anceps and A. japonica can be grown on Blanket peats to 

provide economic yields of pulp appropriate for paper manufacture. A. anceps provided the higher 

quality pulp and was more suitable for mechanical harvesting. Bamboo grown on relatively poorly 

humified Blanket peat will incur plasmolysis when supplied solely with soil-applied commercial 

fertilizers. Applications of slow release fertilizers, and of boron and copper avoids plasmolysis while 

supplying N, P and K, and confers resistance to frost and to flowering, respectively. Proposals are 

made for the preparation of Blanket peats to support bamboo stands, for the management of the 

stands, and for the selection of improved varieties. 

210. Witkoski, C.J. 1964. Bamboo in pulp and paper manufacture. ATCP 4(2): 122-129. 

211. Ye, K.L. 1993. The characteristics and industrial utilization of bamboo. Wood Industry 

Beijing 7(2): 33-36. 

An outline of the characteristics and uses of bamboo in structural applications and for pulping in 

China is given. 

212. Zhang, Q.S; Luo, L.F; Wu, H.Y; Lin, J.H; Tian, X.P. 1998. Pleioblastus amarus - an elite 

cash bamboo. Journal of Bamboo Research 17(4): 51-53. 

The shoots of Pleioblastus amarus, a Chinese bamboo species, are edible, with a good taste, and 

have medicinal properties (antipyretic and detoxifying). The species can also be used for pulp and 

papermaking and other wood products, including silk umbrellas for tourists, folding fans, curtains, 

musical instruments, and chopsticks. It is, therefore, of high economic value and suitable for increased 

exploitation in the Chinese bamboo industry. 

26

213. Zhang, W.Y; Zhou, D.S; Ma, N.X; Yi, C.Q; Cao, D.Y; Zhang, H.M. 1997. A propagation test 

with culm nodes of sympodial bamboo species for pulping. Forest Research 10(4): 

425-428. 

The vegetative propagation 5 bamboo species suitable for pulpwood production (Bambusa textilis 

var. fasca, B. multiplex, B. gibba, B. chungii, Neosinocalamus affinis) was investigated using culm 

node cuttings. Of the 3 planting methods tested, flat planting was better than slanted or vertical 

planting. There were significant differences in survival of cuttings between between species and node 

ages, but no significant differences between growing seasons (March or May). The results of tests with 

cuttings of different thickness (2.5 and 4.6 cm in diameter), from different positions (higher and lower), 

and with single- or double-internodes suggested that survival rates were better with cuttings taken from 

thinner culms, a higher position, and with doublThe possibility of growing endemic species of rattan 

(Calamus spp.) under rubber in Sri Lanka as a secondary crop for production of handicrafts is briefly 

discussed with reference to the success of such operations in Malaysia. 

214. Zhang, X. 1995. Fibre and paper-making properties of the main bamboo species in 

Guizhou. Journal of Bamboo Research 14(4): 14-30. 

The fibre and paper-making properties of 22 bamboos species are described. 

215. Zhen-xing,S; Tian-jian, H; Guang-zhi, Z; Shao-nan, C. 1990. Development of a bamboo 

base and its use as a raw material in the paper industry. Bamboos: Current Research. 

Proceedings of the International Bamboo Workshop, 14-18 November 1988, Cochin, India. 

Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi and IDRC, Canada: 283-285. 

The importance of replacing wood with bamboo for paper-making is emphasized. A case history 

of raising bamboo plantation as a joint effort between a big paper industry and government is 

illustrated. 

Species Suitability for Pulp and Paper 

216. Bamboos in Siam suitable for pulp. Indian Forester 52(4). 1926: p146 

Bamboos Cephalostachyum pergracile, Bambusa polymorpha and Bambusa arundinacea which 

are suitable for making pulp are reported from Siam. 

217. Bhargava, G.G; Dwivedi, R.P; Mohan, S.M. 1985. Pulping studies on bamboos (Assam 

green bamboo and old bamboo) hard woods (sal scantling and salai), mixed bamboos 

+ mixed hard wood (70: 30) and mills chips. IPPTA 22(3): 12-18. 

Assam green bamboo, old bamboo, mixed bamboo (A), sal scantling, salai, mixed hard wood (B), 

mixed bamboo (A) + mixed hard woods (B) (70:30) and mill chips are evaluated for chips classification, 

bulk density, proximate chemical analysis, kraft pulping, bleaching and physical strength properties. It 

is reported that hardwoods need higher alkali than bamboo for producing bleachable grade pulp. It is 

also reported that the pulps in higher yield can be produced by separate digestions and separate 

bleaching of bamboos and mixed hard woods instead of mixed digestion of these two raw materials of 

heterogenous nature. Mixed hard woods used upto 30 per cent in the mixed furnish has no detrimental 

effect on pulping quality and the physical strength properties. 

218. Bhola, P.P. 1976. Pulping studies of hill jati bamboo (Bambusa tulda) from Cachar 

Hills. Indian Forester 102(4): 242-246. 

Proximate chemical analysis and fibre dimensions of Hill Jati Bamboo growing in Cachar Hills 

(Bambusa tulda) are given. The paper present results of pulping and bleaching studies. It is suggested, 

based on the results, that this species of bamboo issuitable for manufacturing wrapping, writing and 

printing papers. 

219. Istas, J.R; Hontoy, J. 1952. The chemical composition and paper making qualities of 

some bamboos harvested in Belgium Congo. Publ. Inst. Nat. Etude agron Congo belge 

(Ser. Tech) No. 41: 23p. 

27

Gives the results of chemical analyses and pulping and paper-making tests of Sasa japonica, S. 

kurilensis, Bambusa hoffii, B. vulgaris, Gigantochloa asper and Ochlandra travancorica. 

220. Istas, J.R; Raekaelboom, E.L. 1960. Paper making from a mixture of M. smithii and B. 

vulgaris. Bulletin of Agriculture. Congo Belge 51(2): 393-402. 

221. Kala, R.P. 1973. Flowering of bamboo in relation to paper manufacture. Northern Forest 

Rangers College Magazine 27: 5p. 

The phenomenon of flowering is described with particular reference to bamboo species used for 

paper manufacture. The difficulties experienced by paper mills in exploitation of the flowered bamboos 

are described and solutions to these problems are suggested. 

222. Kang, Z.Y; Hwang, S.G; Kang, T.Y; Huang, S.K. 1975. Adaptability study on Bambusa 

beecheyana var. pubescens grown in Taiwan. Bulletin, Taiwan Forestry Research 

Institute 264: 7p. 

This variety is the fastest-growing Bamboo in Taiwan and has the thickest culm wall; it is 

recommended for pulping. The results of 5-year-old trials (begun in 1965) on three contrasting sites in 

S. central Taiwan are reported. The yield of culms was considerably greater on a good lowland site 

(Chia-Yi) than on a fairly poor hill site (Lien-Hua-Chi); however, the size of the culms and the total 

weight of rhizomes varied relatively little between sites. 

223. Kedharnath, S; Chatterji, R.N. 1966. A valuable exotic bamboo (Phyllostachys 

bambusoides) in Himachal Pradesh. Indian Forester 92(6): 428-431. 

The bamboo collected from Himachal Pradesh is identified as Phyllostachys bambusoides, a 

valuable exotic bamboo. It is tested and found good for paper manufacture. Descriptions of the species 

are also given. 

224. Ku, Y.C; Pan, T.T. 1975. Experiments on using shoot-sheath of bamboo for pulping 

and papermaking. Quarterly Journal of Chinese Forestry 8(4): 101-107. 

At present, bamboo shoot-sheath (BSS) is not utilized in Taiwan. After steam treatment of BSS, 

[from Sinocalamus latiflorus], av. fibre length was 1.6 mm, equal to or longer than values for 

hardwoods, rice straw or bagasse. Pulps produced by soda pulping in the laboratory, and by neutral 

sodium sulphite pulping in a paper mill, were found suitable for making good-quality printing paper and 

corrugating medium, or for blending with other pulps. However, the yield of chemical pulp was low (25 

oven-dry BSS). The bulkiness and short storage life of BSS also present problems for its use on a 

commercial scale. 

225. Maheshwari, S. 1981. Pulp and paper making characteristics of Dendrocalamus 

strictus from Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh. Indian Pulp and 

Paper. 

226. Maheshwari, S. 1982. Studies on some aspects of pulp and papermaking 

characteristics of Orissa bamboo. Ph.D Thesis. Sambalpur University. 

227. Maheshwari, S; Jaspal, N.S; Bhargava, R.L. 1976. Pulping and paper making 

characteristics of North Kanara (India) bamboos. IPPTA 13(4): 299-306. 

Data are presented on stand characteristics, physical and chemical properties, fibre morphology 

and pulping characteristics of Bambusa arundinacea, Dendrocalamus strictus and Oxytenanthera 

monostigma. 

228. Maheshwari, S; Satpathy, K.C. 1990. The efficient utilization of bamboo for pulp and 

paper making. Bamboos: Current Research. Proceedings of the International Bamboo 

Workshop, 14-18 November 1988, Cochin, India. Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi 

and IDRC, Canada: 286-290. 

28

The pulping characteristics of (a) bamboo of different ages (b) different portions of the culm and 

(c) a few common varieties of bamboo are studied and the results are discussed. Effective methods of 

proper handling and storage of bamboo are also suggested. 

229. Mishra, N.D; Nagaiah, K; Kumar, P.P; Parekh, M.C. 1979. Pulping properties of bamboo 

from Assam, Orissa and Bhadrachalam areas of Andhra Pradesh. Indian Pulp and 

Paper 33(6): 13-15. 

230. Pakotiprapha, B; Pama, R.P; Lee, S.L. 1979. Study for bamboo pulp and fibre cement 

composites. International Journal for Housing Science and its Applications 3(3): 167-190. 

Important characteristics of bamboo fibre reinforced composites are presented. Benefical effects 

of bamboo pulp in imporving the first crack strength of the composite and of bamboo fibres in providing 

post cracking ductibililty are identified. Results of experiments to evaluate the performance of the 

composites under service conditions (as per ASTM requirement for building boards) are also 

presented. 

231. Raitt, W. 1912. Report on the investigation of bamboo as material for production of 

paper pulp. Indian Forest Records 3(3): 26p. 

232. Raitt, W. 1929. The Burma bamboo pulp survey. Indian Forest Records ( Economy series 

- Paper pulp) 14(1) : 48p. 

The report sums up the information available on the subject of areas considered suitable for 

pioneer enterprise in bamboo pulp production in Burma. It is the result of the survey made by the 

author through the districts Arakan of North and South Forest Divisions, Tavoy Forest Division and 

Mergui Forest Division. It is found that a secured supply of bamboos exist in Burma, but the problem is 

in getting the supply to the mill. Also include the report of Robertson, W.A, Conservator of Forests on 

tour inTavoy and Mergui Divisions. 

233. Razzaque, M.A; Das, P; Sayeed, M; Chowdhury, A.R; Das, S.C. 1981. Age factor 

influencing the pulping characteristics of some bamboo species of Bangladesh. Bano 

Bigyan Patrika 10(1/2): 49-58. 

Fibre analysis, chemical analysis, pulping and pulp testing experiments were conducted on Muli, 

Mitinga, Kali, Orah and Dalu bamboos of ages ranging from 6 to 36 months. No appreciable change in 

chemical composition, fibre dimensions, pulp yields and physical strength properties of pulps could be 

monitored with increasing age. The results indicate that probably these bamboo species attain their 

maturity during the first year of growth. For pulping purposes, these species seems to be suitable for a 

twelve months cutting cycle. 

234. Sekyere, D. 1994. Potential of bamboo (Bambusa vulgaris) as a source of raw material 

for pulp and paper in Ghana. Ghana Journal of Forestry 1: 49-56. 

Laboratory studies were carried out to determine the pulping characteristics of a local variety of 

Bambusa vulgaris. The fibre length of 2.65 mm and Runkel Ratio of 1.03 suggest that bamboo fibres 

might be suitable for pulping and paper-making. The bamboo with a lignin content of 26.8 and cellulose 

content of 61.2 was cooked with 18 active alkali for 90 mins to obtain a yield of 54.2 and kappa number 

of 48.2. The pulp evaluations showed that it is not necessary to separate the node from the internode 

during pulping. The physical and strength properties of the pulp produced also showed that the 

bamboo can make good papers. 

235. Shanmughavel, P. 1997. The optimum age for felling of plantation bamboo (Bambusa 

bambos) for pulp and papermaking. Journal of Tropical Forest Products 2(2): 286-288. 

236. Singh, S.V; Mantri, T.C; Deb, U.K; Ghosh, D; Kulkarni, A.G; Murthy, K.S; Bharathi, S; Sude, 

Y; Kapur, S.K; Roy, T.K. 1977. Properties of ETA reed pulps. Research Report No. 1, FRI 

& Colleges, Dehra Dun, India. 

29

237. Singh, S.V; Rai, A.K; Singh, S.P. 1988. Aspects of pulping and papermaking from 

bamboos. Indian Forester 114(10): 701-710. 

A brief account of the chemical and morphological characteristics of major species of bamboo 

used for paper making in India is given in this paper. Research carried out on (a) pulping and 

bleaching, (b) effect of morphological characteristics on sheetproperties, (c) beating properties and (d) 

decay on storage and its effect on pulp properties is reviewed and discussed. A brief description of 

industrial pulping and papermaking is given. 

238. Tamolang, F.N; Lopez, F.R; Semana, J.A; Casin, R.F; Espiloy, Z.B. 1980. Properties and 

utilization of Philippine erect bamboos. Bamboo Research in Asia. Proceedings of a 

Workshop, 28-30 May 1980, Singapore. IDRC, Ottawa: 189-200. 

Of the 48 bamboo species in the Philippines, 29 are erect and the rest are climbing. Of these 10 

species have been studied for their anatomic structure, pulp and paper making characteristics, fibre 

morphology, chemical composition, edibility of theirshoots, physical and mechanical properties, new 

industrial uses, seasoning and preservation aptitudes. The results of these studies are presented in 

this paper. The studies on the properties and the utilization of bamboos in Philippines by the Forest 

Products Research and Industries Development Commission are not comprehensive. Areas which 

require further investigation are indicated. 

239. Ujiie, M; Kawase, K; Imagawa, H. 1986. Studies of utilization of Sasa-bamboos as forest 

resources III. Pulp from soft young culms by the alkaline process. Mokuzai Gakkaishi 

Journal of the Japan Wood Research Society 32(1): 28-33. 

Young culms, 1.5-2.0 m long, of Sasa kurilensis were pulped easily with 1 NaOH. The pulp had a 

good quality and high strength, comparable with that of sulphate pulps of full-grown culms. 

240. Wu, Z.H; Xu, Q.F. 1987. Paper making with bamboo and its economic benefit in the 

world. Journal of Bamboo Research 6(1): 46-53. 

241. Xia, N.H. 1989. Studies on the pulping properties of bamboo. Acta Botanica Austro 

Sinica No. 4: 207-217. 

Chemical constituents and fibre length were determined for 8 bamboo species, including moso 

bamboo (Phyllostachys pubescens). Samples (1 kg) of each species were processed under identical 

pulping conditions. The average unbleached pulp yield was 49.76 (Kappa number 28.3). Pulp 

strengths were satisfactory. Based on the unbleached pulp yield and strength properties, 

Schizostachyum funghomii exhibited the best qualities and Bambusa textilis and B. pervariabilis were 

ranked second and third. Under thesecriteria P. pubescens was ranked last. The pulping properties of 

bamboo of different ages were investigated. It was found that 1- to 2-yr-old bamboos were suitable for 

pulping. 

242. Xie, J.H; Fu, M.Y; Chen, J.Y; Zhang, A.L; Li, R.G. 1999. Study on high-yield structure of 

Moso bamboo pulp stands. Proceedings of the First International Seminar on 

Technologies of the Cultivation, Processing and Utilization of Bamboo in the '99 Bamboo 

Cultural Festival of China. Journal of Bamboo Research 18(4): 65-72. 

The structures of two types of high-yield Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys pubescens) pulpwood 

stands were studied in Anji County, Zhejiang Province, and in Jianyang County, Fujian Province, from 

1991 to 1995. Aspects investigated included stand density, culm age components, and tree 

components. The best high-yield structure for pure Moso stands was a standing density of 3000 

culms/ha, and culm age proportions of 1-2 year old to 3-4 year old of 7:3. Stands of this structure will 

produce a new culm yield of 31.1 t/ha every 2 yr. A model for calculating new culm yield was also 

established, based on the nonlinear relationship between new culm yield, and bamboo stand density 

and culm age components. In mixed Moso and broadleaved tree stands, the most importantstructural 

factor influencing productivity was the bamboo and tree [density] ratio, and the second most important 

the bamboo standing density. In this trial, the best bamboo/tree ratio was ∑DB 2 :∑DT 2 thin=thin 8:2 

[where D is density], and a bamboo standing density of 2100 culms/ha. This structure of 

Moso/broadleaved tree mixed stand will produce 22.8 t/ha of new culms every 2 yr. 

30

Anatomy and Chemical Constituents 

243. Chen, Y.D; Quin, W.L; Li, X.L; Gong, J.P; Ni, M.A. 1985. Study on chemical composition 

of ten species of bamboo. Chemistry and Industry of Forest Products 5(4): 32-39. 

Results are presented of chemical analyses of 10 species from Guangdong and Zhejiang 

provinces. Phyllostachys heteroclada contains larger amounts of holocellulose and less lignin than the 

other species and appears to be useful for chemical utilization. Chemical components change with age 

of the bamboo, amounts of holocellulose and alpha-cellulose decreasing after 1 yr and amount of lignin 

increasing slightly or remaining unchanged. Prolonging the growth period of bamboos is not desirable 

for chemical utilization purposes. 

244. Fengel, D; Shao, X. 1984. A chemical and ultra structural study of bamboo species 

Phyllostachys makinoi Hay. Wood Science and Technology 18(2): 103-112. 

A culm sample of Phyllostachys makinoi was investigated by analysis of its chemical composition, 

and by electron microscopic observations of the cell wall structure before and after extraction and 

degradation procedures. Quantitative determination of the components resulted in 2.6 extractives, 

25.5 lignin, 45.3 alpha-cellulose, and 24.3 polyoses. The main polyose was an arabinoxylan with a 

Xyl: Ara ratio of about 17:1. The electron micrographs show a lamellar deposition of lignin and 

polyoses within the secondary walls. Lignin was soluble by parts in alkaline as well as in acidic 

reagents. Sodium hydroxide solution removed cell wall aubstance mainly from the secondary walls, 

whereas trifluroacetic acid removed substance from compound middle lamellae. 

245. Fujii, Y; Azuma, J; Marchessault, R.H; Morin, F.G; Aibara, S; Okamura, K. 1993. Chemical 

composition change of bamboo accompanying its growth. Holzforschung 47(2): 

109-115. 

An immature culm of a moso-bamboo (Phyllostachys pubescens) 6 m in height was divided into 

six 1-m portions; their chemical composition was analysed and compared with results for an edible 

bamboo shoot (2 m high). In immature bamboo, the content of cellulose (and its crystallinity), and 

hemicelluloses and lignin content were higher in the lower portions. Similar changes were observed in 

uronic acid, acetyl group content, phenolic acid and phenolic aldehyde. Protein, starch and ash 

contents were higher in the upper portions. About 90 of the phenolic acid was composed of p-coumaric 

acid and ferulic acid, both being exclusively in the trans form, but their distribution profile was 

different:p-coumaric acid increased from the top to the bottom of the culm in relation to lignin content, 

while the reverse relation was observed for ferulic acid. Sixteen free amino acids were detected of 

which\small-cap\L-tyrosine was predominant.\small-cap\L-Tyrosine content was highest at the top and 

decreased rapidly in the middle portion of the immature bamboo culm where lignin biosynthesis was 

progressing rapidly. 13C-NMR spectroscopy was found to be useful for analysing the distribution 

of\small-cap\L-tyrosine. The results indicated that 6 m high immature bamboo could appropriately be 

used to study growth and development. 

246. Ghosh, S.S; Negi, S.S. 1958. Salient anatomical structure of Dendrocalamus strictus 

Nees and Bambusa arundinacea Willd. used for paper manufacture. Symposium on 

Cellulose Research. 

247. Giri, S.S; Janmejay, L.S. 1991. Studies on the cell wall components of plain and hill 

bamboos of Manipur. Advances in Plant Sciences: 235-243. 

An analysis of the variations in the contents of fibre and it components such as cellulose, 

hemicellulose and lignin in bamboos collected from plain and hill areas is carried out and the results 

are presented. Six samples such as base internode, middle internode, top internode, base node, 

middle node and top node from plain and hill grown bamboos are studied. The fibre contents are 

reported higher in plain bamboos than in hill ones. The weakness of the hill bamboo culms is reported 

due to the lower percentage of fibre. A decrease in the contents of cellulose and hemicellulose from 

the base to top both in node and internode is reported. 

248. Gomide, J.L; Vivone, R.R; Vilar, R. 1985. Effect of parenchyma cell content on 

characteristics and properties of kraft pulp from Bambusa vulgaris with an optimum 

31

degree of delignification. ABCP 18th annual meeting held during paper week, 18-22 

November, Paulo, Brazil. ABCP, Sao Paulo, Brazil. Vol. 1: 139-147. 

Different amounts of parenchyma cells (0, 11.8, 23.6 and 35.4) were added to the fibre fraction of 

kraft pulp and the characteristics of the pulp were assessed. Pulp of high strength was obtained with B. 

vulgaris; presence of parenchyma cells generally reduced pulp strength. 

249. Hwang, J.S; Chiang, P.Y. 1998. Studies of the changes of texture and chemical 

compositions of Ma-Bamboo shoots (Dendrocalamus latiflorus) during cooking. 

Journal of Agricultural and Forestry 47(2): 89-100. 

The effect of heat treatment on the texture, chemical composition and observed microstructure 

was investigated in Ma-Bamboo shoots. Pectic substances tended to increase after being heated 

between 40 and 80 o C for 100 min. Pectic substances decreased sharply from 880 to 505 mg by 

heating to 100 o C for 200 min, however, cellulose hemicellulose, lignin changed slightly. The change in 

chemical composition and cell microstructure was slight and the cell wall kept shape, even during 

dehydration and construction of cells. It is concluded that during heating, the loss of pectic substances 

simultaneous resulted in the softeing and the contraction and deformation of cell walls. 

250. Liese, W; Weiner, G; Chapman, G.P. 1997. Modifications of bamboo culm structures 

due to ageing and wounding. The bamboos. Proceedings of an International Symposium, 

London, 25-29 March 1996. Academic Press for the Linnean Society of London, San Diego, 

USA: 313-322. 

Structural modifications that can occur during the life span of a bamboo culm due to wounding and 

ageing are described. A bamboo culm grows for only a few months with minor anatomical differences 

within the internode and along the culm length. Structural modifications occur within a maturation 

period of 1-2 years, followed by further changes in older culms due to ageing, such as cell wall 

thickening of fibres and parenchyma. In order to ensure long-term competent physiological functioning, 

any damagecaused by culm injury has to be blocked off, especially as the secondary meristem cannot 

provide new pathways. Protective mechanisms include formation of slime substances, tyloses, 

phenolic compounds and lignification. Special features of wound responsesin comparison to 

hardwoods are suberinization and additional wall lamellae. 

251. Lin, J.G; Dong, J.W; Fan, X.F; Lin, S.D. 2000. The variation tendency of chemical 

composition contents in Dendrocalamus latiflorus culm-wood. Journal of Plant 

Resources and Environment 9(1): 55-56. 

Variation in the chemical composition of Dendrocalamus latiflorus culm wood were systematically 

analysed using samples from different sites (3), ages (1, 2 or 3 yr old), planting methods (3, transplants 

from the maternal bamboo, and cuttings from mainor secondary branches), and planting positions (2, 

horizontal or vertical) in [Fujian Province], China. Components analysed were ash, hot water, NaOH 

and benzene/alcohol extractives, nitric acid/alcohol cellulose, pentosans and Klason lignin. The 

resultsshowed that age and bamboo planting position are the main factors which affect wood chemical 

composition, while site and planting mode are insignificant. 

252. Madan, R.N; Vijan, A.R. 1995. Physico-chemical properties of Dendrocalamus 

giganteus kraft spent liquor. Proceedings of the international seminar on 'Management of 

MFP', 13-15 November 1994. Journal of Non Timber Forest Products 2(3/4): 160-164. 

253. Montalvao, Filho, A; Gomide, J.L; Conde, A.R. 1984. Variability in chemical constitution 

and dimensional characteristics of Bambusa vulgaris fibres. Revista Arvore 8(1): 12-27. 

A study of holocellulose, pentosan, lignin and ash contents, solubility in various solvents and fibre 

dimensions of stem and branch samples of 6.5-yr-old plants grown in plantations in Bahia. 

254. Parameswaran, N; Liese, W. 1977. Occurrence of warts in bamboo species. 

Woodscience and Technology 11(4): 313-318. 

Warts have been observed on the walls of wood cells(under SCM and TEM) in several bamboo 

species; they can be presented not only in vessel members and fibres, but also in the highly lignified 

parenchyma cells, especially in those of the elongated type. Among the 34 species studied only 

32

Melocanna bambusoides possessed warts in all three cell types. The sizes of warts lie with in the 

range observed for dicots and gymnosperms. There is no recognizable correlation between the 

occurrence of warts and the taxonomic grouping of bamboos. It has been suggested that the 

development of warts is associated with the lignification of the cell wall. 

255. Paremeswaran, N; Liese, W. 1981. The fine structure of bamboo. Proceedings of Bamboo 

Production and Utilization XVII IUFRO World Congress, 6-17 September 1981, Kyoto, 

Japan. Wood Research Institute, Kyoto University, Kyoto: 178-183. 

The fine structural aspects of the diverse cells like fibres, parenchyma, metaxylem vessels, 

protoxylem and phloem are briefly discussed. Special emphasis is laid on the wall construction as 

realated to the physical properties of the culm. 

256. Patnaik, J.K; Rao, P.J.M; Gantayet, R.G; Bhargava, K.S. 1984. Effect and utilisation of 

bamboo pin chip. IPPTA 21(3): 20-23. 

With the increase of the cost of bamboo, efforts are made to utilise bamboo at the maximum for 

pulping. A study was conducted on the cooking of pin chips, which are removed as bamboo dust 

during the screening of the chips. Studies show that the small quantity pulp obtained from separate 

cooking of pin chips can be mixed with normal kraft pulp for the manufacture of the kraft paper without 

any significant effect on the physical strength properties of paper. It is reported that by mixing small 

quantity(5 percent) of pin chips with the usual chip the quality of pulp does not deteriorate much. 

257. Samapuddhi, K. 1959. A preliminary study in the structure of some Thai bamboos. 

Royal Forest Department, Ministry of Agriculture, Bangkok: 13p. 

Results of a preliminary study made on the anatomical structure, silica content, fibre length and 

starch content of some Thai bamboos are presented. 

258. Sekhar, T; Balasubramanian, A. 1994. Structural diversity of culm in Bambusa vulgaris. 

Journal of the Indian Academy of Wood Science 25(1/2): 25-31. 

Bambusa vulgaris is one of the valuable and much used bamboos for structural purposes and in 

the paper industry. The variations in the fibro-vascular bundle organization, mechanical tissue 

distribution and the fibre charcterestics in in culm internodes were used for the identification and 

delimitaiton of of Bambusa vulgaris and its varieties viz. B. vulgaris var. striata and B. vulagaris cv. 

wamin. The significance of the structural diversity of the culm wall in taxonomy is discussed and the 

elevation of the above varieties to the species level is supported. 

259. Shin, D.S; Jung, T.M. 1962. Studies on the chemical components of bamboo produced 

in Korea-(1)-On the chemical composition of kat-tae. Research Bulletin of Chinju 

Agricultural College 1: 31-34. 

260. Tomazello, Filho, M; Azzini, A. 1987. Anatomical structure, fibre dimensions and basic 

density of Bambusa vulgaris culms. IPEF 36: 43-50. 

Examination of sections of 3-yr-old culms showed a decrease in fibre length from internal to 

external culm layers at all culm heights. Fibre length increased longitudinally upto 25-75 culm height 

and then decreased towarse the apex. Basic density increased from internal to external layers and 

from the base to the apex. 

261. Tono, T. 1963. Chemical studies on bamboo fibre as a raw material for pulp. Bulletin of 

the University of Osaka Prefecture Ser. B. 14: 127-161. 

262. Varshney, M.C. 1965. The effect of anatomical characteristics of bamboo on pulping. 

Sirpur Industries Journal 4(2): 116-118. 

263. Vijan, A.R; Madan, R.N. 1996. Study on the chemistry of Dendrocalamus giganteus 

lignin. Van Vigyan 34(1/2): 43-49. 

33

With a view to possible utilization of kraft lignin as a byproduct, lignin was isolated from the spent 

liquor left from pulping by the kraft process, using bamboo samples from sound and flowered 

specimens of D. giganteus. Data are tabulated on the C, H, O and S contents of the lignins, on the 

contents of Klason lignin and functional groups (methoxyl, hydroxy and carboxylic) and correlations 

between them, and on the relative retention time and percentage of alkaline nitrobenzene oxidation 

products of the lignins. The results indicate clear differences in structure between lignin isolates from 

sound and flowered bamboos. 

264. Wu, S.C; Sheng, H.J; Liou, J.L. 1996. The anatomical properties of some bamboo 

species grown in mainland China (III). Quarterly Journal of the Experimental Forest of 

National Taiwan University 10(2): 37-59. 

The middle internode of a bamboo culm was cut from each of 23 species belonging to 7 genera 

(Brachystachyum [Semiarundinaria], Clavinodum [Arundinaria], Indocalamus, Oligostachyum 

[Arundinaria], Phyllostachys, Pseudosasa and Sinobambusa), native to Zhejiang. Sectioning, 

maceration and computer image analysis were used to investigate their anatomical properties. The 

characteristics recorded were: vascular bundle size; number of vascular bundles/mm2; culm wall 

thickness; distribution of small and large diameter vessels; fibre length, diameter and cell wall 

thickness; diameter, length and type of parenchyma; and the proportion of various anatomical 

elements. 

Cellulose, Hemicellulose and Lignin 

265. Ahmad, N; Karnik, M.G. 1944. A technical survey of cellulose bearing materials of India. 

Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research 2: 275-290. 

The chief object of this investigation was to determine the alpha-cellulose content of the cellulosebearing 

materials of India under the optimum conditions of Kier boiling and bleaching. The materials 

tested included Bamboos, grasses, straws, fibres, and the tree species Fir, Spruce, Salai (Boswellia 

serrata), Karai (Sterculia urens). Four processes were used-soda, sulphate, sulphite, and sodium 

sulphite; the last of these gave the best results. Addition of sodium aluminate as an auxiliary was found 

to increase the alpha-cellulose content of the pulp, but also increased the ash content. The Fir and 

Spruce samples gave good results and seem to be promising raw materials for the rayon industry. 

Salai and Karai did not give satisfactory results; the pulp obtained consisted of short fibres and had a 

low alpha-cellulose content. The results of the experiments on all types of materials are given in tabular 

form. The Bamboos include Dendrocalamus strictus. Bambusa arundinacea, and Eetta Bamboo. 

266. Azzini, A; Arruda M.C.Q. de; Ciaramello, D; Salgado, A.L de B; Tomazello Filho, M. 1987. 

Combined production of cellulose fibres and ethanol from bamboo. Bragantia 46(1): 

17-25. 

In a study using 1-, 3- or 5-yr-old Bambusa vulgaris culms, shredded and treated with dilute 

H2SO4, fibre yield for paper making was higher in younger culms. Potential ethanol yield (by 

fermentation of glucose) and glucose and starch contents were higher in samples from the middle and 

upper portions of the culms. Density did not vary with age but was higher in the middle and top portions 

of the culms. Combined production of ethanol and fibres was considered to be feasible. 

267. Azzini, A; Arruda M.C.Q. de; Tomazello Filho, M; Salgado, A.L. de B; Ciaramello, D. 1987. 

Variation in cellulose fibre and starch contents in bamboo culms. Bragantia 46(1): 

141-145. 

In a study of 3-yr-old Bambusa vulgaris culms, density was lowest in the basal portion of the culm 

and in the inner parts of the culm wall. Cellulose fibre and starch contents did not vary significantly 

along culm length, although higher fibre contentwas found in the outer portion of the culm. The highest 

starch contents were found in the inner portion of the culm. 

268. Bawagan, P.V. 1968. Studies on bamboo (Bambusa vulgaris Schrad. ex. Wendl.) 

cellulose and its isolation by analytical and industrial methods. Philippine Lumbermann 

14(11): 18-24, 32, 34. 

34

The results suggested that the prehydrolysis/sulphate process may be the only effective means of 

removing the pentosan from the Bamboo chips (though at a cost of considerable loss of alphacellulose) 

and thus enabling a dissolving-grade pulp to be obtained. 

269. Bhat, R.V; Guha, S.R.D. 1952. Indigenous cellulosic raw materials for the production of 

pulp, paper and board. Part IV. Writing and printing paper from paper mulberry 

(Broussonetia papyrifera). Indian Forester 78(2): 93-99. 

Experiments conducted in Madras State and Travancore-Cochin State indicate that paper 

mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera, Vent.) can be easily raised in plantations from seeds. The species 

reproduces itself naturally and is a fast grower and a good coppicer. The bast fibre is used in Japan 

for the preparation of extremely strong and high quality papers. Laboratory experiments as well as 

pilot plant trials carried out in this Branch indicated that the wood of this species is a useful raw 

materials for the production of writing and printing papers. Since the chemical pulp from this wood is 

short-fibred, an addition of about 25 of long-fibred pulp such as bamboo pulp in the furnish improves 

the strength properties of the paper. 

270. Bhat, R.V; Guha, S.R.D. 1953. Indigenous cellulosic raw materials for the production of 

pulp, paper and board. Part XV. Chemical pulps and writing and and printing paper 

from Albizzia stipulata Bolvin. Indian Forester 79(9): 475-483. 

Laboratory experiments on the production of chemical pulps by the sulphate process from the 

wood of Albizzia stipulata are described. The wood was obtained from forests of Bihar. Results of four 

pilot plant experiments on the preparation of writing and printing papers from this wood are also 

included. This investigation has shown that chemical pulps in satisfactory yields can be prepared from 

this wood. The whiteness of the bleached pulps was good. Although the average fibre length of the 

pulps was only 1.02 mm., writing and printing papers made on the pilot plant from the furnish containg 

entirely the pulp from this wood were characterised by good strength properties. The formation of the 

papers was satisfactory. 

271. Bhat, R.V; Guha, S.R.D; Pande, S.P. 1952. Indigenous cellulosic raw materials for the 

production of pulp, paper and board. Part VIII. Writing and printing papers from 

Boswellia serrata Roxb. Indian Forester 78(4): 169-175. 

Laboratory experiments carried out in this Institute on the production of bleached chemical pulp 

from Boswellia serrata (salai) are described. The results of pilot plant experiments are also included. 

Two samples of printing paper made from mixtures of Boswellia serrata pulp and bamboo pulp are 

appended. These experiments have shown that writing and printing papers with suitable strength 

properties can be prepared from Boswellia serrata using 25-40 of bamboo pulp in the furnish. As the 

chemical pulp from Boswellia serrata is short-fibred, it is essential to add bamboo or other long-fibred 

pulp to the furnish. 

272. Bhat, R.V; Jaspal, N.S. 1957. Indigenous cellulosic raw materials for the production of 

pulp, paper and board. Part XXX. Wrapping papers from castor stem (Ricinus 

communis Linn.). Indian Forester 83(10): 614-620. 

Laboratory experiments on the production of wrapping papers from castor stem (Ricinus 

communis Linn.) of the annual variety are described. Wrapping papers were made on the pilot plant of 

the Forest Research Institute from 100 castor stem pulp and also from a mixture of 70 of this pulp and 

30 bamboo kraft pulp. These papers were characterised by good formation and satisfactory strength 

properties. The utilization of castor stalk for the manufacture of wrapping papers will depend upon the 

price at which it can be made available at the mill site. 

273. Bhat, R.V; Viramani, K.C. 1957. Indian Forest Leaflet No. 123. FRI & Colleges, Dehradun. 

274. Bhowmick, K; Mian, A.J; Akhteruzzaman, A.F.M. 1994. The kinetics of delignification in 

low sulphidity kraft anthraquinone and soda anthraquinone pulping of muli bamboo 

(Melocanna baccifera). IPPTA. 

275. Bist, D.P.S; Singh, S.V; Singh, M.M; Guha, S.R.D. 1974. Oxidation of bamboo- dioxane 

lignin by alkaline potassium ferricyanide. Indian Pulp and Paper 29(4): p3. 

35

276. Bist, D.P.S; Singh, S.V; Singh, M.M; Guha, S.R.D. 1975. Oxidation of dioxane and soda 

lignins of bamboo by alkaline cupric sulphate. Indian Pulp and Paper 29(6): p17. 

277. Cellulose yield of bamboo. Myforest 2(1)1965: 51-52. 

A note on the visiting of Mr. John Wilson the various bamboo areas of Mysore State. It is reported 

that the cellulose yield of bamboo is 4 to 5 times more per acre, per year than that obtained from the 

best managed southern pines in U.S.A. 

278. Dhawan, R; Singh, S.V. 1982. Chemical characterization of hemicelluloses isolated 

from three species of bamboo - Dendrocalamus strictus, Dendrocalamus hamiltonii 

and Melocanna baccifera. Journal of the Indian Academy of Wood Science 13(2): p62. 

GLC hemicelluloses showed that xylose is the main constituent (80-92 of hemicellulose in all 3 

species. Glucose, arabinose, rhamnose and glusuronis acid were also found in small amounts. The 

yield of sugars was highest for D. strictus, whereas the yield of pentosans and methoxyl compounds 

were highest for D. hamiltonii, M. baccifera had the lowest content of sugars, pentosans and methoxyl 

compounds. 

279. Doat, J. 1967. Bamboos: A possible source of cellulose for Africa. Bios. For. Trop. 113: 

41-59. 

280. Espiloy, Z.B. 1982. Silica content in spiny bamboo Bambusa blumeana Blume ex 

Schultes. NSTA Technology Journal 7(4): 38-43. 

Determination of silica, which affects the pulping quality in the species, Bambusa blumeana is 

dealt with in this paper. It is reported that a positive correlation exists between specific gravity, cell wall 

thickness and silica content in the bamboo. 

281. Faix, O; Jakab, E; Till, F; Szekely, T. 1988. Study on low mass thermal degradation 

products of milled wood lignins by thermogravimetry-mass-spectrometry. Wood 

Science and Technology 22(4): 323-334. 

Thermogravimetry-mass-spectrometry (TGMS) as a sophisticated analytical technique is 

described for the thermal analysis of milled wood lignins from spruce (Picea abies), beech (Fagus 

sylvatica), and bamboo (Bambusa sp.). The samples were heated on thethermobalance in an inert gas 

atmosphere (Ar) with 20°C/min heating rate. The weight loss curves (TG) and their 1st derivatives 

(DTG) were recorded. The evolution of 10 low mass degradation products with m/z below 44 was 

monitored as a function of temp. by means of a quadrupol mass spectrometer; their intensity profiles 

were recorded and interpreted in terms of lignin structure and the course of carbonization. The results 

are in agreement with the results of differential scanning calorimetry and pyrolysis-gas-chromatography 

mass-spectrometry of the phenolics. 

282. Faix, O; Lange, W; Beinhoff, O. 1980. Molecular weights and molecular weight 

distributions of milled wood lignins of some wood and Bambusoideae species. 

Holzforschung 34(5): 174-176. 

Mol. wt. measurements were made on milled wood lignins from spruce, beech, aspen [Populus 

spp.], birch, dabema [Piptadeniastrum africanum], bamboo and rattan using high pressure liquid 

chromatography. The yields of milled wood lignin were between 1.7 and 5.9 and considerable 

differences in their molecular properties were found between species. 

283. Faix, O; Meier, D. 1989. Pyrolytic and hydrogenolytic degradation studies on 

lignocellulosics, pulps and lignins. Holz als Roh und Werkstoff 47(2): 67-72. 

Wood and milled-wood lignin from beech, Norway spruce and bamboo, as well as teak wood and 

teak HCl-lignin, were subjected to analytical pyrolysis using the off-line approach, and to 

hydrogenolysis. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry was used for product identification and 

assignment as derivatives from 4-hydroxyphenylpropane, guaiacylpropane and syringylpropane basic 

units, followed by capillary gas chromatography for quantitative determination of the phenolics. The 

results are compared with thoseof nitrobenzene oxidation and quantitative non-degradative FTIR- 

36

spectroscopy. Pyrolysis-GC and hydrogenolysis-GC studies were also used for the characterization of 

residual lignins in kraft and alkaline-sulphite-anthraquinone-methanol (ASAM) pulps from beech, pine 

and sugar cane bagasse. It is concluded that analytical pyrolysis of biomass, in both on-line and offline 

approaches, is well suited for lignin classification even without previous lignin isolation; 

hydrogenolysis is more suitable for the characterization of residual lignins in pulps. 

284. Fengel, D; Shao, X. 1985. Studies on the lignin of the bamboo species Phyllostachys 

makinoi Hay. Wood Science and Technology 19(2): 131-137. 

Milled wood lignin (MWL) isolated from Phyllostachys makinoi was investigated by chemical and 

physical methods. The bamboo lignin was rich in syringyl units which is indicated by a high methoxyl 

content and respective bands in the IR spectrum. The distinct absorption bands for aromatic ring 

vibrations were attributed to final p-coumaryl ester groups. In the UV spectrum the extinction maximum 

in the range of 280 nm is shifted to longer wavelengths compared with those of wood lignin. With 

NaOH and trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) mainly an arabinoxylan with a Xyl :Ara ratio of 14:1 was extracted 

from bamboo saw dust. The lignin proportion in the NaOH extract, which is derived mainly from the 

secondary walls, has a lower methoxyl content; the lignin proportion in the TFA extract, which is 

derived from the compound middle lamellae, has a higher methoxyl content compared with MWL. 

285. Guha, S.R.D; Pant, P.C. 1967. Hemicelluloses from bamboo (Bambusa arundinaceae). 

Indian Pulp and Paper 21(7): p14. 

286. Han, H; Zu, Z.W; Zhang, J.W; Ma Naixun; Ma, L.F. 1996. Ash and lignin contents for 76 

species of bamboo wood. Journal of the Zhejiang Forestry College 13(3): 276-279. 

The ash content and lignin content for 76 species of bamboo wood from Guangxi and Zhejiang 

were determined. The ash content ranged from 0.88 to 7.23, averaging 2.65, and the lignin content 

ranged from 2.36 to 30.4, averaging 24.95. 

287. Hasegava, T; Ito, M. 1959. The behaviour of xyloses during hydrotropic pulping. Journal 

of Chemical Society of Japan, Industrial Chemical Section 62(9): 1435-1438. 

288. Higuchi, T. 1958. Studies on the chemical properties of the lignin of bamboo-stalk. 

Journal of Biochemistry 45(9): 675-685. 

Results of an investigation made on the lignin of bamboo are described in this paper. It is conclued 

from ethanolysis and hydrolysis of stalks of Phyllostachys edulis that a part of the lignin is formed by 

oxidative condensation of beta-guaiacyl ethers of guaiacyl-, syringyl-, and p-hydroxyphenyl-propanes. 

289. Higuchi, T; Kawamura, I. 1966. Occurrence of p-hydroxy phenylglycerol-B-aryl ether 

structure in lignins. Holzforschung 20(1): 16-21. 

Describes experiments which showed that this structure is not specific to the lignin of gramineous 

plants but also occurs in various other lignins, the amount being almost the same in conifers and 

gramineous plants, and a little less in broadleaved trees. 

290. Higuchi, T; Tanahashi, M; Sato, A. 1972. Acidolysis of Bamboo lignin. I. Gas-liquid 

chromatography and mass spectrometry of acidolysis monomers. Mokuzai Gakkaishi 

Journal of the Japan Wood Research Society 18(4): 183-189. 

Milled wood lignins from Phyllostachys pubescens and from four tree species were subjected to 

acidolysis in dioxan/water containing 0.2N HCl. Examination of the products showed that guaiacyl- and 

syringyl-glycerol- beta -aryl ethers are present in approximately equal amounts in the Bamboo lignin, 

and that these two components account for 50-60 of the phenylpropane units of the lignin. 

291. Higuchi, T; Tanahashi, M; Nakatsubo, F. 1973. Acidolysis of Bamboo lignin III. 

Estimation of arylglycerol- beta -aryl ether groups in lignins. Wood Research 54: 9-18. 

The concentrations of both condensed and uncondensed forms of arylglycerol- alpha, beta -diaryl 

ether groups in Phyllostachys pubescens, Fagus crenata and Thuja standishii were estimated by 

gas/liquid chromatography and spectral analysis. Results arecompared and discussed. 

37

292. Idei, T. 1981. D.P [degree of polymerization] and crystallinity of cellulose in the 

different growth stage of bamboo culms. Bulletin, Utsunomiya University Forests 17: 

59-73. 

Including data on chlorophyll and lignin contents in Phyllostachys heterocycla var. pubescens [P. 

pubescens]. 

293. Ingle, T.R; Bose, J.L. 1969. Nature of hemicelluloses of bamboo (Dendrocalamus 

strictus). Indian Journal of Chemistry 7: 783-785. 

Two hemi cellulose fractions are isolated from Bamboo (Dedrocalamus strictus) powder, and 

holocellulose prepared from it. The behaviour of some of these fractions towards water and potassium 

hydroxide is studied. The main hemicellulose fraction from holocellulose is found to be a 

glucuronoxylan of molecular weight of 6600, containing D-xylose and D-glucuronic acid units in the 

molar preportion of about 9:1. 

294. Jamaludin K; Abd. Latif Mohmod. 1993. Variability of specific gravity, fibre morphology 

and chemical properties in three Malaesian bamboos. BIC India Bulletin 3(2): 7-13. 

The paper discusses physical properties like specific gravity and fibre morphology and chemical 

properties of three commercialy imporatant bamboo species in Peninsular Malaysia, namely Bambusa 

vulgaris. B. heterostachya and Gigantochloa scortechinii. Specific gravity is reported increase from 

basal to top portion. The fibre properties especially the fibre diameter and fibre cell wall thickness are 

reported increase with the increasing height. 

295. Kapoor, S.K; Guha, S.R.D. 1984. Infrared studies on wood lignin of eta-reed (Ochlandra 

travancorica). IPPTA 21(3): 24-28. 

Presents the results of an investigation carried out to elucidate the chemical character of milled 

wood lignin isolated from Ochlandra travancorica which is proved to be a very good raw material for 

chemical pulping. 

296. Karnik, M.G. 1960. The nature of hemicelluloses from bamboo (Dendrocalamus 

strictus). Part I. Preliminary investigations. Indian Pulp and Paper 14(9): 427-429. 

Reports the results of a study of the nature of hemicelluloses in bamboo following chemical 

analysis of 0.25 mm. x 2.5 cm. air-dried shavings from 3-year-old culms. The material was found to 

contain 64.8 of holocellulose (oven-dry wt. basis), 10.6 of "hemicellulose A" and 3.77 of "hemicellulose 

B". The higher value of the "hemicellulose A" fraction indicates that bamboo contains more 

hemicelluloses of a lower degree of polymerization, which are likely to be dissolved and destroyed in 

the process of alkaline pulping, resulting in the production of a pulp of low hemicellulose content. Data 

from chemical analysis of the holocellulose, alpha-cellulose, and hemicelluloses isolated from the 

bamboo, showed that of the 21 of pentosans present in holocelluloses ca. 2.73 are alkali resistant and 

retained in alpha-cellulose. Hemicellulose B contained 20.9 more pentosans than hemicellulose A. 

The high pentosan content of both fractions indicated that the bamboo hemicelluloses contained more 

pentosans than hexosans. 

297. Karnik, M.G; Morak, A.J; Ward, K. 1963. Hemicelluloses and dissolving pulp from Indian 

bamboo (Dendrocalmus strictus). TAPPI Journal 46(2): 130-134. 

A more quantitative treatment of Karnik's preliminary investigation into the hemicelluloses of D. 

strictus, in which the main hemicellulose of the bamboo would seem to be consistent with the structure 

of 4-0-methylglucuronoarabinoxylan (though the only basis for this so far is analogy with the wood 

hemicelluloses). 

298. Kawase, K; Sato, K; Imagawa, H; Ujiie, M. 1986. Studies on utilization of Sasa bamboos 

as forest resources. 4. Pulping of young culms and histological change of cell 

structure of the culms in growing process. Research Bulletins of the College Experiment 

Forests, Hokkaido University 43(1): 73-97. 

Young culms of S. kurilensis (up to 4 yr old) were pulped by boiling with 1-2 KOH. This produced 

pulps suitable for folk art paper, because of the presence of thin-walled fibres, unlike the 

38

sclerenchymatous adult fibres. Underground buds and culms

Acidolysis products of milled wood lignin of Phyllostachys pubescens were fractionated by gel 

filtration on Sephadex, and individual compounds in both monomeric and dimeric fractions were 

identified by infra-red, nuclear-magnetic-resonance and mass spectrometry. The results confirmed 

those of the earlier study, showing that the Bamboo lignin is a mixed polymer of guaiacyl and syringyl 

propanes and a small amount of p-hydroxyphenylpropane connected by linkages similar to those found 

in spruce lignin. 

309. Negi, J.S. 1969. Chemical composition of hemicellulose of bamboo (Dendrocalamus 

strictus). Ph.D Thesis, Agra University, Agra, India. 

310. Negi, J.S. 1970. Effect of hemicellulose on paper making properties of bamboo 

(Dendrocalamus strictus) sulphate pulp. Indian Pulp and Paper 24(8): p347. 

311. Pant, R; Singh, M.M; Guha, S.R.D. 1975. Studies on bamboo lignins. Journal of the Indian 

Academy of Wood Science 6(2): 61-71. 

Lignins were extracted from Dendrocalamus strictus by several methods, and analysed in several 

ways. The results indicate that there are 2 main fractions present: (A) amounting to 52, with a higher 

methoxyl value, easily extracted by organic acids andin which guaiacyl and syringyl repeating units 

dominate and (B) with a lower methoxyl value, extractable with more drastic treatment (periodic and 

sulphuric acid) and in which there are more p-hydroxy-phenyl propane units. 

312. Rita Dhawan; Singh, S.V. 1982. Chemical characterization of hemicelluloses isolated 

from three species of bamboo Dendrocalamus strictus, Dendrocalamus hamiltonii 

and Melocanna baccifera. Journal of the Indian Academy of Wood Science 13(2): 62-66. 

A comparison of the chemical composition of hemicelluloses (Beta 17-20 percent yield) from three 

bamboo species viz. Dendrocalamus strictus, D.hamiltonii and Melocanna baccifera is reported. The 

gas liquid chromotography (GLC) of hemicelluloses indicated that xylose (=82-92 percent yield) is the 

main constituent of the hemicelluloses from all the three species. Glucose, arabinose, rhimnose and 

glucuronic acid were also found to be present in small amounts in all the hemicelluloses. The yield of 

sugars was highest in case of D.strictus, whereas pentosans and methoxyl content were the highest in 

the case of D.hamiltonii. M.baccifera had the lowest yield of sugars, pentosans and methoxyl content. 

313. Sabharwal, H.S; Singh, S.V; Singh, M.M; Guha, S.R.D; Jain, K.D. 1962. Chlorination of 

bamboo protolignin. Indian Pulp and Paper 31(1): p13. 

314. Schowing, A.G; Johansson, G. 1965. Determination of acid soluble lignin in 

semichemical bisulphite pulps and in some wood and plants. Syensk Paperstard 

68(18): 607-613. 

315. Shimada, M. 1972. Biochemical studies on Bamboo lignin and methoxylation in 

hardwood and softwood lignins. Wood Research No.53: 19-65. 

Gives a detailed account of research on the mechanism governing the biochemical formation of 

lignins in higher plants, based on an extensive review of world literature and on the author's studies of 

lignin from Bamboo (Phyllostachys sp.), Pine (Pinus thunbergii) and Ginkgo biloba. 

316. Singh, M.M; Bhola, P.P. 1978. Chemical nature of soda lignins and pulp sheet 

properties of Indian bamboos. Indian Forester 104(6): 438-449. 

The difference in the lignin content of different species of Indian bamboo is very negligible (24+-3) 

percent. The carbon and hydrogen content of these lignins are 59.7 percent with a variation of 3 

percent respectively. The number of c9 units varies from 12 to 21 with an average of 14 indicating that 

the structure of carbon lignin skeleton is more similar to hardwoods than conifers. The I.R. spectra is 

similar and show bamboo lignin composed of polymer. There is a correlation between the number of c9 

units of different bamboos and breaking length of the beaten pulps. 

40

317. Singh, M.M; Mathur, G.M; Jain, K.D. 1974. Isolation of carbohydrates and preparation of 

alphacellulose from bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus) to study alkali resistance of 

hemicelluloses. Indian Pulp and Paper 24(4/5): 19-21. 

318. Singh, S.V; Singh, S.P; Bhandari, S.S; Saini, B.K. 1987. Chemical modification of lignin in 

high yield pulps - A new approach to improve strength properties and bleachability. 

IPPTA 24(1): 27-31. 

The paper gives an account of the improvement achieved in strength properties and bleachability 

of high yield pulps through chemical modification of their lignin. Soda thermo mechanical (STM) and 

soda-sulphite thermomechanical (SSTM) pulps of bamboo are modified using chlorine sodium sulphite 

and hypochlorite. 

319. Takei, T; Kato, N; Iijima, T; Higaki, M. 1995. Raman spectroscopic analysis of wood and 

bamboo lignin. Mokuzai Gakkaishi, Journal of the Japan Wood Research Society 41(2): 

229-236. 

Fundamental conditions to record near-infrared excited Fourier-transform Raman spectra from 

wood meal samples were studied. Favourable Raman spectra were obtained at 150-200 mW of laser 

power with more than 100 scanning. The size of meal samples, in the range of 20-200 mesh, had no 

influence on the spectra. Under these conditions Raman spectra were recorded from meal samples of 

Fagus crenata, Cryptomeria japonica and Phyllostachys pubescens as typical hardwood, softwood, 

and bamboo species, respectively. On F. crenata, a weak Raman band at 1740 cm and a strong one at 

1330 cm were observed, whereas on C. japonica no Raman band at 1740 cm and a weak one at 1330 

cm were observed. In addition, on C. japonica, the relative intensity at 1600 cm, which was assigned to 

the lignin, was stronger than on F. crenata. On P. pubescens, extremely strong bands, which were 

assigned to the lignin and phenolic acids, were observed at 1630 cm and 1604 cm. Upon 

delignification of F. crenata and C. japonica meal samples,the Raman band intensities decreased at 

1660 cm, 1600 cm, 1460 cm, 1330 cm, 1030 cm and 800 cm. In the case of P. pubescens, the same 

bands as F. crenata and C. japonica, except 1660 cm, and the bands at 1630 cm decreased as a 

result of delignification. These results indicate that the Raman bands decreased by delignification are 

assigned to lignin. By recording Raman spectra from meal samples, the information on native-state 

lignin may be obtained directly and easily. 

320. Yoshinaga, A; Fujita, M; Saiki, H. 1989. Evaluation of the varieties of lignins in wood and 

bamboo cell walls by Maule colour reaction coupled with microscopic 

spectrophotometry. Bulletin of the Kyoto University Forests No. 61: 276-284. 

Variations in lignin structure were compared for hinoki (Chamaecyparis obtusa), makanba (Betula 

maximowicziana), buna (Fagus crenata), mizunara (Quercus crispula), hinoki compression wood, and 

the bamboo mousouchiku (Phyllostachys pubescens). Fibre walls of makanba and mizunara, rich in 

syringyl lignin, stained red and showed light absorption at 510-520 nm. Walls of makanba vessels, 

mizunara earlywood vessels and hinoki tracheids, rich in guaiacyl lignin, were stained yellow-brown 

with no absorption at 510-520 nm. Amount of cell wall syringyl lignin decreased in the order: fibre > 

fibre/tracheid > tracheid = vessel. Compression wood tracheids and some bamboo cells stained dark 

brown, and exhibited light absorption at 300-400 nm, perhaps due to the presence of p-hydroxyphenyl 

propane and p-coumaric acid. Results suggest that cells rich in syringyl lignin act as mechanical or 

physical supports rather than as water conductors. 

321. Yoshizawa, N; Idei, T. 1980. Sugar composition of bamboo hemicellulose. On the 

fractionation of the mannan-containing hemicellulose. Bulletin, Utsunomiya University 

Forests No. 16: 57-64. 

It samples from 1-yr-old Phyllostachys heterocycla var. pubescens P. pubescens. 

322. Zafar, S.I; Abdullah, N. 1987. Bamboo wood delignification by Coriolus versicolor. The 

Malaysian Forester 50(1): 121-123. 

Coriolus versicolor is found to degrade lignin in bamboo. The study deals with the bamboo - C. 

versicolor solid state fermentation interaction. Contents of lignin, cellulose and water soluble 

substances, before and after the bamboo wood degradation by C. versicolor as well as organic matter 

loss during the solid state fermentation period of 14 days are presented in a table. Bamboo wood 

41

lignin content fell from 36.5 to 29.9 per cent which represents 18.1 per cent degradation of lignin in 14 

days. 

323. Zeng, M.C; Xiang, Y.M. 1987. Study on bamboo cellulose triacetate. Journal of Bamboo 

Research 6(2): 39-49. 

The quality of bamboo cellulose triacetate (CTA) and ultrafiltration membranes produced from it 

was equal to or better than that of cotton CTA and membranes. 

Fibre Morphology and Characteristics 

324. Abdul Latif Mohamod; Khoo, K.C; Jamaludin, K; Jalil, A.A. 1994. Fibre morphology and 

chemical properties of Gigantochloa scortechinii. Journal of Tropical Forest Science 

6(4): 397-407. 

325. Alvin, K.L; Murphy, R.J. 1988. Variation in fibre and parenchyma wall thickness in culms 

of the bamboo Sinobambusa tootsik. IAWA Bulletin 9(4): 353-361. 

In order to elucidate whether perceptible anatomical changes occur with aging, 3 culms whose 

ages were estimated to be less than 1 yr, between 1 and 2 yr, and more than 2 yr, were cut from a 

plant in greenhouse cultivation in the UK and the middle 1 cm portions of the 6th and 12th internodes 

were examined. There were significant increases in av. cell wall thickness of the fibres and ground 

tissue parenchyma with age. Of the 4 different tissues examined, only the cortical parenchyma 

remained unchanged. The basic density of the culms also increased with age. There was clear 

evidence of the persistence of living protoplasts in fibres and parenchyma with the possible exception 

of the thickest walled fibres. Progressive thickening of the cell walls with time is consistent with the 

reported increase in mechanical strength of bamboo culms over a period of time. It is stressed that 

these observations need to be verified using accurately aged culms of a range of species growing 

naturally. 

326. Chu, W.F; Yao, H.S. 1964. Studies on the fibre structure of 33 Chinese bamboos 

available for pulp manufacture. Sci. Silvae, Peking 9(4): 311-327. 

A detailed study (with 2-page English summary) of fibre length, cell-wall thickness, percentages of 

fibres and other elements, and density. Of the 33 species examined, 21 are listed as promising for 

yielding high-quality pulp. 

327. Foelkel, C.E.B; Barrichelo, L.E.G; Manfredi, V; Fazanaro, R. 1976. Quantitative analysis of 

cellulosic fibres. Papel 37: 59-64. 

Microscopic analyses of cellulose fibres were made to determine weight factors and 'coarseness' 

of papermaking pulps commonly encountered in Brazil (unbleached kraft pulps from Araucaria 

angustifolia, Bambusa vulgaris, Eucalyptus saligna, Pinus elliottii and Joannesia princeps; bleached 

kraft pulp from E. saligna; bagasse soda pulp; NSSC, thermomechanical and chemimechanical pulps 

from eucalypts; and mechanical pulp from A. angustifolia). The determination of the quantitative 

composition of fibre mixtures in commercial pulps and papers from weight factors is outlined. 

328. Hu, C.Z; Zhou, J.Y; Lan, X.G; Yang, L.P. 1986. Changes in nutrient composition of 

bamboo shoots of different ages. Journal of Bamboo Research 5(1): 89-95. 

M.c. and fibre content increased with age in Phyllostachys pubescens, while proteins, amino 

acids, fats, sugars, inorganic salt contents, P, Ca and Fe concentration decreased. 

329. Huang, L.Y; Zhu, L.F; Hu, A.Q. 1992. Study on the fibre length and culm properties of 

five bamboo species in Hunan, China. Bamboo and its Use. International Symposium 

on Industrial Use of Bamboo, 7-11 December 1992, Bejing, China. Chinese Academy of 

Forestry and International Tropical Timber Organization: 129-132. 

The length of fibre, amount of vascular bundles and properties of physical mechanics have been 

determined for Indosasa levigata, Phyllostachys kwangsiensis, P. bambusoides, P. heteroclada and P. 

42

virdis in Yiyang, Hunan. The results show that the length of fibre is variation in different parts of the 

bamboo culm, such as the fibre of tabashir is longer than that of green skin at the base of culm, no any 

difference in the middle and shorter at the top. The thickness of culm wall is thicker at the base and 

thinner at the top. The internodes are longest in the middle of culm and the amount of vascular bundle 

is maximum at the top. The five species are excellent ones. 

330. Jamaludin K; Jalil, A.A. 1994. Fiber and chemical properties of Bambusa vulgaris 

Schrad.. Bamboo in Asia and the Pacific. Proceedings of the Fourth International 

Bamboo Workshop, Chiangmai, Thailand. IDRC, Canada and FORSPA, Bangkok: 218-229. 

The paper discusses the variation of fiber and chemical properties of different portions of 

Bambusa vulgaris. A significant effect of bamboo portion, location position on cell wall thickness, 

fibrelength, slenderness ratio, holocellulose and ash content is reported. A significant effect of bamboo 

portion, location on specific gravity and 1 percent NaOH solubility is also shown. Fibre and chemical 

properties are found to have significant effect. The base portion is reported to have the longest 

fibrelength 3.51mm), highest slenderness ratio (245.0), lowest holocellulose content(70.8 percent) and 

highest one percent NaOH solubility(26.5 percent) as compared to the middle and top portions. 

331. Jamaludin K; Jalil A.A; Abd. Latif Mohmod; Khoo, K.C. 1994. A note on the proximate 

chemical and fibre morphology of Bambusa vulgaris. Journal of Tropical Forest Science 

6(3): 356-358. 

Data on the proximate chemical composition and density and fibre dimensions are tabulated and 

briefly discussed based on an analysis of 50 mature culms of Bambusa vulgaris from Malaysia, as part 

of a study of the suitability of the species as a pulping material. 

332. Kitamura, H. 1962. Studies on the physical properties of bamboo. IX. On the fibre 

content. Journal Japan Wood Research Society 8(6): 249-252. 

Tabulates data on the variation of fibre content of 1- to 6-year Phyllostachys reticulata after 

pulping by the soda process. Age played no significant part, but fibre content was found to increase 

with culm height and to decrease from the outer to the inner parts of culms. 

333. Krishnagopalan, A. 1973. Paper forming properties of bamboo in relation to its fiber 

characteristics. MSc Thesis. University of Maine at Orono. 

334. Ku, Y.C; Chiou, C.H; Chiu, C.H. 1972. Tests on fibre morphology and composition of 

important bamboos in Taiwan. Co-operative Bulletin, Taiwan Forestry Research Institute 

with Joint Commission on Rural Reconstruction No. 20: 8p. 

Tables with English caption give the results of measurements of fibre length and width, and of 

proximate chemical analyses(by TAPPI standard method Tllm-59) of the wood, of Bambusa 

beecheyana var. pubescens, B. stenostachya, Lelebba dolichoclada, L. oldhamii, Phyllostachys edulis, 

P. makinoi and Sinocalamus latiflorus. 

335. Li, Q. 1984. On the relation between internode length and fibre length of Pseudosasa 

amabilis and Bambusa pervariabilis. Journal of Bamboo Research 3(1): 89-94. 

For P. amabilis, correlation coefficients between internode and fibre length in inner- middle- and 

outer- parts were respectively 0.725, 0.337 and 0.574 and generally greater than the critical value of 

0.381. For B. pervariabilis they were respectively 0.629, 0.638 and 0.618 and the critical value was 

0.361. It is suggest that the linear correlations between internode and fibre length are marked and that 

fibre stretch is one of the causes of internode stretching; when intercalary meristems devide, there 

derivative cells stretch fully before secondary thickening, resulting in simultaneous internode stretching. 

336. Liese, W; Grosser, D. 1972. Investigations on the variability of the fibre length in 

bamboo. Holzforschung 26(6): 202-211. 

Published information on the fibre dimensions of 78 species of bamboo is assembled in a table. 

The variations in fibre length and width within one internode has been investigated in five species. 

Generally, the fibre length increases across the wall from the periphery and decreases again towardse 

the center, but the longest fibres are some times found in the outer zone. The fibre width does not 

43

follow a similar pattern. A considerable variation exists longitudinally within one internode, the shortest 

fibres occuring at or near the nodes. A small decrease in fibre length occurs with increasing height in 

culm. 

337. Ma, L.F; Zhu, L.Q. 1990. Fibre forms and tissue percentage of six species of sympodial 

bamboos in Zhejiang Province. Journal of the Zhejiang Forestry College 7(1): 63-68. 

Fibre length (L) width (W), L/W, cell wall thickness (T), lumen diameter (D), T/D and the 

percentage of fibre tissue were recorded for Lingnania wenchouensis, L. chungii, Bambusa oldhamii, 

B. textilis var. fusca, Sinocalamus (Dendrocalamus) latiflorus and S. (D.) beechayana. Fibre lengths 

were gratest in the middle of the bamboo shaft, while w decreased from ground level upwards. The 

percentage of fibre tissue decreased from the outside of the stem inwards and from the top of the stem 

downwards. 

338. Monsalud, M.R. 1965. Fibre characteristics of bamboo species in the Philippines. 

Conference on Pulp and Paper Development in Africa and Near East Cairo. 

Fibre characteristics of thirteen bamboo species of Philippines are discussed. 

339. Murphy, R.J; Alvin, K.L. 1992. Variation in fibre wall structure in bamboo. IAWA Bulletin 

13(4): 403-410. 

The degree of polylamellation in the fibre cell walls of Phyllostachys virideglaucescens was 

investigated. The extent of polylamellation was found to be influenced by position of the vascular 

bundle in the culm wall, in certain positions by age of the culm and, most strikingly, with position within 

the vascular bundle. The number of wall lamellae was variable but tended to the greatest in fibres 

adjacent to either vascular elements or ground tissue at the periphery of the fibre bundles. A similar 

pattern of variation in fibre wall lamellation was also observed in two other species of bamboo. 

340. Murphy, R.J; Alvin, K.L. 1997. Fibre maturation in the bamboo Gigantochloa 

scortechinii. IAWA Journal 18(2): 147-156. 

Fibre maturation, which has been shown in a number of bamboos to be a process extending over 

a long period after the culm has reached its full height, was investigated in comparable internodes (6th 

above ground level) in culms of Gigantochloa scortechinii up to three years old, with special reference 

to the fibres constituting the free fibre strands immersed in the ground tissue. The possession of such 

strands is characteristic of this pachymorph species. The fibres of the free strands were notable more 

heterogeneous in terms of their diameter than those of the fibre cape adjacent to the vascular tissues. 

It is in some of the larger fibres of the free strands that wall thickening is longest delayed, so that, even 

after three years, many still remain comparatively thin walled, especially in the inner region of the culm 

wall. Fibres retain a living protoplast and appear to undergo progressive septation. 

341. Murphy, R.J; Alvin, K.L; Chapman, G.P. 1997. Fibre maturation in bamboos. The 

bamboos. Proceedings of an International Symposium, London, 25-29 March 1996. Linnean 

Society Symposium Series No. 19. Academic Press for the Linnean Society of London, San 

Diego, USA: 293-303. 

Cell diameter, cell wall thickness, degree of cell wall lamellation, development of lignification and 

culm density were studied in Phyllostachys viridi-glaucescens and Sinobambusa tootsik cultivated at 

the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and in Gigantochloa scortechinii from a natural stand in peninsular 

Malaysia. Maturation of fibres was extremely heterogeneous and influenced by height in the culm, 

location of the vascular bundle across the culm wall and location of the fibres within vascular bundles. 

Fibres which matured earliest in development occurred in the lower internodes around the periphery of 

the culm wall and immediately adjacent to vascular tissue. In middle and inner parts of the culm wall, 

fibre maturation was observed to take place over at least 3 growing seasons with progressive cell wall 

thickening and lignification of the newly formed wall material. These findings are discussed with 

reference to mechanical properties of bamboos. 

342. Nomura, T; Yamada, T. 1977. On the discrete diffraction of small angle X-ray scattering 

of bamboo (Phyllostachys mitis). Wood Research No. 62: 11-18. 

44

Discrete diffraction depending on periodically recurring elements (interparticle interference) was 

observed both parellel and perpendicular to the fibre direction. Crystallite length and width were 

calculated to be about 11µ m and 4.8 µ m respectively. 

343. Ota, M. 1955. Studies on the properties of bamboo stem. Part II: On the fibresaturation 

point obtained from the effect of the moisture content on the swelling and 

shrinkage of bamboo splint. Bulletin Kyushu University Forestry 24: 61-72. 

Full research report on the subject mentioned in the title. Full statistical analysis is provided. 

Contains eleven tables and three figures. 

344. Paremeswaran, N; Liese, W. 1976. On the fine structure of bamboo fibres. Woodscience 

and Technology 10: 231-246. 

The ultrstructure of bamboo fibres are investigated using various techniques. Studies are made 

on the following seven species, Cephalostachyum pergracile, Dendrocalamus latiflorus, D. strictus, 

Melocanna bambusoides, Oxytenanthera abyssinica, Phyllostachys edulis and Thyrsostachys oliveri. 

345. Patel, M; Trivedi, R. 1994. Variations in strength and bonding properties of fines from 

filler, fiber, and their aggregates. TAPPI Journal 77(3): 185-192. 

346. Pattanath, P.G. 1972. Trend of variation in fibre length in bamboos. Indian Forester 

98(4): 241-243. 

The trend in the variation of fibre length within a culm has been studied for twelve different species 

of bamboos. While the fibre length in the lower portion of the culm is more than at higher levels, the 

pat1tern of variation differ from species to species. Fibre length also does not show any consistent 

relationship with internode length in the species investigated. 

347. Preston, R.D; Singh, K. 1950. The fine strcture of bamboo fibres. I. Optical properties 

and X-ray data. Journal of Experimental Botany 1(2): 214-226. 

A detailed investigation is made on the fine structure of a wide variety of bamboo fibres. A 

combination of X-ray analysis, measurement of refractive indices in longitudinal view and of phase 

differences in transverse section has presented a complete picture of cellulose chain orientation. 

Attention is given to the general molecular architecture of bamboo fibres and particularly the relation of 

molecular structure to fibre dimensions. 

348. Rajulu, A.V; Reddy, G.R; Chary, K.N. 1996. Chemical resistance and tensile properties 

of epoxy-coated bamboo fibres. Indian Journal of Fibre and Textile Research 21: 223-224. 

The chemical resistance and tensile load at break of bamboo fibres (Dendrocalamus strictus) 

before and after coating with a high performance epoxy resin(Araldite LY 5052/Hardner 5052 system) 

have been studied. It is observed that the tensile load at break and chemical resistance of bamboo 

fibres increase on coating, indicating that epoxy resin and bamboo fibres are favourable materials for 

making the composites. 

349. Sahu, A.K; Patel, M. 1996. Effect of fibres on the optical properties of bamboo pulp. 

IPPTA 8(1): 43-47. 

350. Shanmughavel, P; Francis, K. 1996. Trend of variation in fibre-length in an age series of 

Bambusa bambos. Journal of Tropical Forestry 12(4): 208-211. 

Analyses were made of fibre length and fibre classification in pulps prepared from chips of 

Bambusa bambos from plantations of ages ranging from 1 to 6 yr old. No appreciable change in fibre 

length and percentage content of +50, +65, +100 and -100 mesh fibres in both unbleached pulp and 

bleached pulps was found with increasing age. The results indicate this bamboo species attains 

maturity during the first year of growth, so that for pulping purposes, it is suitable for a 1-yr cutting 

cycle. 

45

351. Shanmughavel, P; Francis, K. 1998. Comparison of fibre-length of plantation grown 

bamboos with natural stand bamboos. Van Vigyan 36(2/3/4): 125-127. 

Comparisons between the fibre dimensions (length, diameter and wall thickness) of 10 bamboo 

species (3 Bambusa spp. including B. bambos, 4 Dendrocalamus spp., Melocanna baccifera, 

Schizostachyus dullooa [Schizostachyum dullooa], Ochlandra travancoricaPhyllostachys 

bambusoides) in [a] natural stand in [Tamil Nadu] India, and 2 species in plantations (Gigantochloa 

scortechinii, 3 yr old; and B. bambos, 1-6 yr old) showed no significant differences between them. 

There were no significant correlations between fibre length, diameter and wall thickness. There was 

only a minimal increase in fibre length with increasing age of plantation-grown B. bambos. However, 

there was a significant difference in fibre length across culms. The investigation was carriedout from 

the viewpoint of utilizing bamboos for pulpwood. 

352. Siddique, A.B; Chowdhury, A.R. 1982. Fibre dimensions of some wood, bamboo and 

green species with special reference to their usefulness in paper making. Bano Bigyan 

Patrika 11(1/2): 56-62. 

Fibre dimensions of various wood, bamboo and grass species and miscellaneous fibrous materials 

of Bangladesh were studied in the Pulp and Paper Division of the Forest Research Institute, 

Chittagong. The data from these studies are compiled in this review and the species graded as very 

good, good or poor for paper making on the basis of Runkel ratio. The other properties, viz, flexibility 

co-efficient and relative fibre length have also been determined, since these properties are reported to 

be correlated to the tensile strength and tearing resistance of paper. Out of the species studied, 33 

wood, 3 bamboo, 2 grass and 4 miscellaneous species have been found promising for paper making. 

353. Singh, M.M; Purkayastha, S.K; Bhola, P.P; Lal, K; Singh, S. 1976. Fibre morphology and 

pulp sheet properties of Indian bamboos. Indian Forester 102(9): 579-595. 

Fibre morphology and pulp strength of twelve species of bamboos studied in two sets of pulps. In 

all species fibre dimensions and parenchyma properties varied widely. But there was no significant 

difference in respect of chemical composition and alkali consumed during pulping. In respect of 

strength properties there was marked difference between beaten and unbeaten pulps. No relationship 

could be observed between fibre characteristics and the pulp strength properties. The study revealed 

that fibre characteristics cannot be used as a criterion for selecting bamboos for pulp and paper 

production. 

354. Singh, M.M; Purkayastha, S.K; Bhola, P.P; Lakshmi Sharma. 1971. Influence of variation 

in fibre dimensions and parenchyma proportion on sheet properties in bamboo. Indian 

Forester 97(7): 412-421. 

The effect of variations in fibre dimensions on strength properties are studied by testing 

handsheets made from 32 mixtures of different fractions of pulp of Dendrocalamus strictus, beaten to 

250 ml (CSF). Fibre length, determined from unbeaten pulpaccounts for 77 to 90 per cent of the 

variations in strength properties. Parenchyma proportion shows a high negative correlation with the 

sheet properties. Fibre length and parenchyma proportion together account for 94 percent of the 

variation in strength properties. 

355. Tamolang, F.N. 1962. Fibre dimensions of some Phillipine fibrous materials. Philippine 

Journal of Forestry 18(1/4): 59-60. 

Gives tabulated data for hardwoods, softwoods, palms, bamboos, agricultural crops and wastes, 

grasses etc. It seems likely that, as in India, Bamboos will become an increasingly important source of 

long-fibred paper pulps. 

356. Wai, N.N; Murakami, K. 1984. Relationship between fiber morphology and sheet 

properties of Burmese bamboos. Journal of the Japan Wood Research Society 30(2): 

156-165. 

Fibre morphology and papermaking properties of whole and fines-free pulps were investigated for 

6 major species of Burmese bamboo. Based on the distribution of the Runkel ratio of the fibres in a 

cross section of the tissue, the bamboo species used inthis study were placed in 3 groups: group A 

(Melocanna bambusoides) that contains a substantial number of thin-walled fibres; group B (Bambusa 

46

polymorpha and Dendrocalamus membranaceus) that contain a small number of thin-walled fibres; 

and group C (Cephalostachyum pergracile, B. tulda, and D. longispathus) that consist almost entirely 

of thick-walled fibres with very small lumen. It was found that this grouping is very useful in evaluating 

and explaining sheet properties. The influence of fibre morphology on sheet properties was much 

greater in the fines-free pulp sheets than in the whole pulp sheets. The sheets of group A pulp were 

denser and had significantly better sheet-strength properties, except for tear index, than the sheets of 

other pulp groups of the same beating levels. The small amount of thin-walled fibres contributed to the 

burst index and the folding endurance of the group B fines-free pulp sheets. The effect of the presence 

of fines on sheet properties is also discussed. 

357. Wai, N.N; Nanko, H; Murakami, K. 1985. A morphological study on the behavior of 

bamboo pulp fibers in the beating process. Wood Science and Technology 19(3): 

211-222. 

Bamboo pulp fibres respond to beating more rapidly than do wood fibres; this is probably due to 

the difference in secondary wall structure between the fibres. In a study on the fibre morphology of 

Bambusa polymorpha, the secondary wall was seen to consist of alternately arranged broad and 

narrow layers. During the beating process, a number of transverse and concentric cracks are 

generated in the broad layers, which causes an internal fibrillation. The outer broad layers with their 

numerous cracks separate from the inner layers and swell greatly toward the outside. The outer 

secondary wall layer of bamboo fibres has a microfibril angle of about 20° with respect to the fibre axis 

which is much smaller than that of the S1 layer of wood fibres. As a result, this layer appears to offer 

little resistance to prevent the external swelling of the broad layers. 

358. Xia, Y.F; Zeng, J. 1996. Studies on the fibre morphology of Bambusa distegus of 

different ages. Journal of Bamboo Research 15(1): 45-51. 

This species is one of the main raw materials for papermaking in Chishui, Guizhou Province, 

China. Details are given of ranges found in fibre length, width, cell wall thickness and cavity diameter. 

Fibre length and cell wall thickness increased with age, while cavity diameter decreased. 

359. Zamuco, G.I.T. 1972. Fibre length variability in relation to the anatomical structure of 

bamboo. Technical Note No. 115, Forest Products Research and Development 

Commission, Philippines: 4p. 

Briefly discusses fibre-length variability in Bamboos, with particular reference to the species 

suitable for manufacturing pulp and paper that are grown in the Philippines. 

Mechanical Pulping 

360. Chao, S.C; Pan, T.T. 1963. Studies on magnifite process for bamboo pulp and paper 

making. Bulletin of Taiwan Forest Research Institute with Joint Commission on Rural 

Reconstruction No. 19: 10p. 

Advantages of the process for pulping Dendrocalamus latiflorus were: increased pulp yield, a 

stronger pulp, shorter cooking times and reduced consumption of SO. 

361. Chen, S.C; Lin, S.J; Lin, S.C. 1974. The multistage digestion of Taiwan bamboo for 

pulping. Bulletin of Taiwan Forestry Research Institute No. 242: 16p. 

Pulps for printing papers were prepared from 5 species of bamboo by three pulping processes:(a) 

two-stage digestion with hot water (150 o C) followed by NaOH; (b) two-stage digestion with dilute 

NaOH (at 100 o C) followed by more concentrated NaOH; and (c) single-stage digestion with NaOH. In 

each trial the pulp was bleached in three stages before testing. Process (a) gave the highest yield and 

best physical properties of pulp and the lowest bleaching ratio, resulting in economical pulping. The 

pulps with the best physical properties were from Bambusa beecheyana var. pubescens and B. 

dolichoclada, followed by B. stenostachya and Dendrocalamus latiflorus; Phyllostachys makinoi was 

judged the least suitable. Since B. beecheyana var. pubescens can be grown on a 3-year rotation, its 

planting is recommended as a solution to the raw material supply problem in the Taiwan paper 

industry. 

47

362. Eberhardt, L. 1968. Hi-yield and mechanical type pulp from raw materials of India. 


Tabulates and discusses the suitability of Indian materials, including tropical hardwoods, eucalypts 

and bamboo, for high-yield and refiner mechanical pulping. 

362a. Lund, H. 1942. Mechanical disintegrator of wood for production of fibres. German 

Petant No. 720190, April 2, 1942. 

363. Perdue, R.E; Kraebel, C.J; Kiang, T. 1961. Bamboo mechanical pulp for manufacture of 

Chinese ceremonial paper. Economic Botany 15(2): 161-164. 

Total Taiwan production of this "joss" paper is 4500-5000 tons/year, a large proportion hand-made 

in 500 small mills from bamboo. Bambusa stenostachya, Dendrocalamus latiflorus, and E. oldhamii 

are chiefly used for the machine-made groundwood paper of the Kung-chin mill, the operation of which 

is described. Phyllostachys pubescens is chiefly used in the mainland. 

364. Rao, M.S; Rao, B.Y; Agshikar, B.M. 1962. Hand made paper from bamboo by cold soda 

process. Indian Pulp and Paper 17(4): 261-263. 

Chemical Pulping 

365. Alam, M.R; Barua, I.B; Khan, A.B. 1997. Innovation to the high yield alkaline semi 

chemical pulping of muli bamboo. Bangladesh Journal of Scientific and Industrial 

Research 32(1): 79-83. 

An experimental study was carried out to evaluate the possibilities of producing semichemical pulp 

for different end uses from muli bamboo (Melocanna baccifera) by cooking with white liquor from the 

recovery cycle, i.e. by adopting the kraft semichemical process. The yield and other pulping 

characteristics were encouraging and well within the acceptable range of for semichemical pulps. The 

physical strength properties and other characteristics of the pulp and hand-made sheets were tested. 

The strength properties of the semichemical pulps were relatively lower than those of conventional 

kraft pulp, but it was possible to produce an acceptable grade of pulp from under carefully chosen 

cooking conditions. The yield was higher (72-74) than that of conventional kraft pulp (45-48). The 

approximate cost of production of paper from this semichemical pulp was attractive. The investment 

and process modifications required to incorporate this type of pulping in the Karnaphuli Paper Mills at 

Chandraghona in Bangladesh were also not major. 

366. Azzini, A. 1976. Influence of dimensions of culms of Bambusa vulgaris Schrad. On the 

yield rejects percentage, kappa number and brightness of pulp obtained by the 

sulphate process. Papel 37: 125-127. 

The best overall results were obtained with chips of 6.0 x 0.8 x 0.6 cm. Most rejects, minimum 

brightness and highest kappa number were obtained with the largest size of chips studied (6.0 x 1.2 x 

1.0 cm). Data are also given for density, void vol., fibre dimensions and chemical composition of the 

bamboo. 

367. Azzini, A; Gondim, T.R.M.A. 1996. Starch extraction from bamboo chips treated with 

diluted sodium hydroxide solution. Bragantia 55(2): 215-219. 

In culms of Bambusa vulgaris (1 and 5 years of old), the contents of starch fibrous materials and 

parenchymatous residue were determined using sodium hydroxide solution concentrations of 0.25, 

0.50 and 0.75 for 5, 10 and 15 hours and shredding times of 30, 60 and 90 seconds. The contents of 

starch , fibrous materials and parenchymatous residue were not affected by sodium hydroxide 

concentration and treatment time. The highest starch quantity (75.22 g/kg) was obtained at the 

highest shredding time (90 seconds) from the 5 year bamboo culms. This study showed the starch 

extraction is feasible technically as a pretreatment of the bamboo chips employed to produce pulp and 

paper. 

48

368. Azzini, A; Nagai, V; Ciaramello, D. 1979. Alkaline monosulphite pulping of Bambusa 

vulgaris schrad [Bamboo: Fiber]. Bragantia 38(14): 131-144. 

369. Banthia, K.M; Mishra, N.D. 1968. Recovery of bamboo dust and knotter rejects (nodes) 

in a bamboo kraft pulp mill. Indian Pulp and Paper 23(2): 171-174. 

369a. Banthia, K.M; Mishra, N.D; Rao, A.V; Rao, G.M. 1970. Some studies on high yield 

pulping of Bamboo. Part I – Alkali penetration behaviour of bamboo (for chemical and 

semi-chemical pulp). Indian Pulp and Paper 25(1/6): 420-430. 

370. Banthia, K.M; Mishra, N.D; Rao, A.V; Rao, G.M. 1972. Some studies on high yield 

pulping of Bamboo. Part II - Alkali treatment of brown stock. Indian Pulp and Paper 

26(8/9): 101-113. 

Describes laboratory studies on the use of mild alkali treatments on hard, moderately hard and 

normally cooked chemical and semichemical pulps of Bamboo [unspecified] to produce soft pulps with 

minimum loss of yield and properties. 


pulping of Bamboo. Part III - Pulp yield vis-a-vis a cooking system and re-use of 

wastes from Bamboo. Indian Pulp and Paper 27(1/2): 16-25. 

In continued work, the authors give results of a study of (1) factors affecting the relative yield of 

sulphate pulp obtainable from Bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus) by two different cooking systems, and 

(2) the potential value of recovering and using Bamboo screenings from the clipping plant, and 

'buntings' and branches from the forest, as additional pulping material. It is concluded that recovery of 

available wastes could contribute to a substantial increase in Bamboo pulp yield without much difficulty 

or extra expense. 


pulping of Bamboo. Part IV - Pulp yield versus bleaching variability for Bamboo pulp. 

Indian Pulp and Paper. 27(3/4): 57-59, 61-67. 

Describes promising results of attempts to devise a practical and economical procedure for 

improving the bleaching of Bamboo sulphate pulp without loss of pulp yield or quality. The procedure 

consists essentially of controlled hypochlorite bleaching followed by a mild H2O2/SO2 treatment. 

373. Barrichello, L.E.G; Foelkel, C.E.B. 1975. Production of sulphate pulp from mixtures of 

wood of Eucalyptus saligna with small proportions of chips of Bambusa vulgaris var. 

vittata. IPEF 10: 93-99. 

Different blends were made of E. saligna chips with B.v. var. vittata chips, and sulphate pulping of 

the mixed material was studied. Pulps made from (a) blends containing 5 and 10 Bamboo (total chip 

weight basis) and (b) 100 E. saligna were compared. Pulp yield and tear strength of pulps made from 

(a) were significantly superior to those of pulp made from (b), while there was no difference between 

the pulps in beating time, hand-sheet density, tensile strength and burst strength. 

374. Barrichello, L.E.G; Foelkel, C.E.B. 1975. Rapid alkaline pulping for the production of 

chemical pulp from Bambusa vulgaris var. vittata. IPEF No. 11: 83-90. 

Briefly describes Kleinert's rapid alkaline pulping process and gives results of an experiment on 

the use of this method in the production of pulp from B. v. var. vittata grown in Sao Paulo. Pulp yields 

and strengths comparable with those obtained by the normal sulphate process were achieved, and 

there were savings in time and energy. 

375. Bharatia, D.K; Veeramani, H. 1974. Technical feasibility of vanillin production from 

bamboo black liquor. Indian Pulp and Paper 29: 6-11, 13-16. 

376. Bhowmick, K; Mian, A.J; Akhtaruzzaman, A.F.M. 1992. Effect of anthraquinone in soda 

pulping of muli bamboo (Melocanna baccifera). IPPTA 4(4): 36-44. 

49

Conventional soda pulping results in lower pulp yield and strength properties Anthraquinone (AQ) 

is used as an additive in soda pulping to overcome the problems. Laboratory studies on soda+AQ 

pulping of mill-cut mull bamboo (Melocanna baccifera) show that AQ accelerated delignification, 

improved pulp yield at a particular kappa number and reduced the active alkali dose or cooking time 

compared to normal soda cook. An addition of AQ as low as 0.05 on OD raw material lowered the 

alkali demand by 4 on OD bamboo. Such a low dose of the catalysis increased the pulp yield by 3 on 

OD bamboo. The yield was almost similar to the kraft control. Use of 0.10 AQ further increased the 

pulp yield to surpass the kraft control. But the gain in yield with 0.10 AQ was not as remarkable as with 

0.05 AQ. The beating characteristics and strength properties of pulp improved by the addition of AQ 

during soda pulping. The soda+AQ pulp is almost equal to the kraft control. This investigation has 

shown that AQ is a promising additive in soda pulping of muli bamboo. 

377. Biyani, B.P. 1966. Nitric acid pulping of Bambusa arundinacea Willd. Abstracts of 

Thesis. Forest Product Journal 16(11): p60. 

378. Biyani, B.P; Gorbatsovisch, S.N; Lorey, F.W. 1967. Nitric acid pulping of bamboo. TAPPI 

Journal 50(1): 87A-91A. 

Describes trials of this process at Syracuse, N.Y., for making paper-grade chemical pulps from 

Bambusa arundinacea. Highest screened-pulp yield (40.9) was obtained by cooking with 10 HNO3 at 

80 o C. For 6 hr. and extracting with 1 NaOH at 120 o C. for 1 hr. It is concluded that, in view of the low 

pentosan content of the pulps, the process is promising. 

379. Bolker, H.I; Singh, M.M. 1965. Delignification by nitrogen compounds. II. Pulping of 

spruce, birch, bamboo and bagasse with nitric - nitrous acid mixtures. Pulp and Paper 

Magazine of Canada 66: T165-T170. 

It is concluded inter alia that, under some economic conditions, the pulping of Bamboo [not 

specified] with HNO3 may be worth commercial consideration. 

380. Bose, S.K; Chowdhury, A.R; Akhtaruzzaman, A.F.M. 1998. Neutral sulphite 

anthraquinone (NS-AQ) pulping of muli bamboo (Melocanna baccifera). Journal of 

Tropical Forest Products 4(1): 45-51. 

Neutral sulfite (NS) anthraquinone (AQ) pulping of muli bamboo (Melocanna baccifera) was 

conducted in the laboratory. Normal NS and kraft pulping were also conducted for comparison. The 

total yield gain in the NS-AQ process was 6 to 7.9 units more than that of the kraft control at Kappa 

number 20. The Kappa number could not be lowered below 32 in the normal NS pulping. The use of 

0.1 AQ was sufficient to give the desired effect. The strength properties of unbleached NS-AQ pulps 

were lower than those of kraft pulps. 

381. Browning B.L. 1952. The chemical analysis of wood. In: Wise, L.E. and Jahn, E.C. (Eds.), 

Wood Chemistry. Vol. II, Part VII. Reinhold, New York. 

382. Chang, F.J; Kuo, L.S. 1976. Studies on manufacturing of dissolving pulp from bamboo 

Sinocalamus latiflorus and Bambusa stenostachya. Quarterly Journal of Chinese 

Forestry 9(1): 97-106. 

383. Chen, S.C; Lin, S.J; Lin, S.C. 1973. Semichemical pulping of Taiwan Bamboos. Co 

operative Bulletin, Taiwan Forestry Research Institute with Joint Commission on Rural 

Reconstruction No. 21: 16p. 

Reports pulping trials on five Bamboo species by the cold-soda, neutral sulphite (NSSC) and 

sulphate processes. The NSSC pulps, although the lowest in yield, showed good strength (near that of 

imported Canadian kraft pulp) and were bleached to 72-88 GE brightness by the CEH 

(chlorination/alkali extraction/hypochlorite bleaching) sequence. The net yield of 48.3-53.2 for the 

bleached pulp was well above that obtained from fully cooked pulps. Bamboo NSSC pulps may 

therefore replace imported long-fibrepulps in high-grade papers. The sulphate pulps were darker and 

hard to bleach, but were strong enough for packaging products. It is concluded that the best properties 

where shown by pulps from Bambusa beecheyana var. pubescens, followedin order by Leleba 

50

dolichoclada, Bambusa stenostachya, Sinocalamus latiflorus and Phyllostachys makinoi, the last two 

being unsuitable. 

384. Devi, N; Bhola, P.P; Singh, M.M; Guha, S.R.D. 1982. Prehydrolysis of bamboo - Effect of 

pH. Indian Forester 108(5): 342-353. 

Studies in this paper have been carried out with a view in understand the effect of pH on 

prehydrolysis of bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus). The bamboo chips have been cooked with 1 of 

H2SO4, H2O and 10 of NaOH for 90 minutes and 150 minutes. The acidic, aqueous and soda lignins 

have been analysed. These results show that pulp yield decreases at higher pH and at more cooking 

time, and is also effected by the final pH of the prehydrolysates. The lignin yield from prehydrolysate 

decreases as the pH goes towards acidic side. The methoxyl content in isolated lignins decreases with 

the increase of lignin yield, while total-OH increases with the increase in lignin yield. The ratio of 

syringaldehyde to vanillin is less in lignins obtained at higher prehydrolysis time. The acidic and 

aqueous lignins are less condensed than soda lignin. 

385. Dhawan, R. 1980. Nitric acid pulping of Dendrocalmus strictus. Indian Forester 106(2): 

122-125. 

Dendrocalamus strictus was pulped by nitric acid process. Air-dry chips were cooked with nitric 

acid and sodium nitrite. The residual wood was extracted with dilute solution of caustic soda. The 

material was washed disintegrated and screened. The yield of the pulps was determined. It was 

oberved that by the addition of sodium nitrite upto a certain extent, delignification was enhanced. 

Pulps were analysed for Kiason lignin content, pentosan content, nitrogen content, ash content and 

permanganate number. It was observed that the yield, Klason lignin content, pentosan content and 

permanganate number of pulps decrease with increase in concentration of nitric acid, cooking time and 

temperature. 

386. Du, H.T. 1957. Studies on the alkaline pulping of bamboo. Bulletin of Taiwan Forestry 

Research Institute No. 47: 12p. 

387. Escolano, J.O; Nicholas, P.O; Felix, G.T. 1964. Pulping, bleaching and paper 

experiments on Kauayan-Tinik Bambusa blumeana Schlt.F. Philippine Lumberman 

10(4): 33-36. 

Results of an investigation carried out to determine the suitability of Bambusa blumeana for pulp 

and papermaking. This species is reported easily digested by the single stage sulphate pulping 

process and the pulps produced responded well to standard three-stage bleaching process. It shows 

that good quality bond, airmail bond, onionskin, offset book, kraft wrapping and bag papers can be 

produced from this species of bamboo. 

388. Fukuyama, G; Kawase, K; Satonaka, S. 1955. (I) Alkaline (soda), (II) Kraft and (III) NSSC 

(Neutral sulphite semi-chemical) pulps from Sasa spp.. Research Bulletin of Forestry, 

Hokkaido University, Japan 17(2): 321-381. 

Details are given of the compositions and strengths of the pulps obtained by these 3 processes 

under varying conditions of cooking. The kraft process gave the strongest pulps. The NSSCP, when 

yield was 54-77%, produced fibreboards stronger than those from wood chips; pulps from this yield 

range were weaker than Birch NSSCP but showed excellent tearing strength and their alpha-cellulose 

content was 59.81 %. Both the kraft and NSSCP processes are recommended. 

389. Gajdos, J; Farkas, J; Janci, J. 1971. Bleaching of sulphate pulps from Bamboo. Papir a 

Celuloza 26(6): 69-79. 

Gives results of laboratory trials with pulps made from air-dry Bamboo with yields of 39-58. A 

comparison with typical pulps made from central European conifers and hardwoods shows that 

Bamboo pulps are more difficult to bleach and are generally inferior in mechanical properties. 

390. Gonzalez, T; Escolano, J.O. 1965. The fiber fractions of giant bamboo sulfate pulp and 

their strength properties. Philippine Lumberman 11(6): 12-14, 16, 20. 

51

391. Gremler, E.R; McGorovern, J.N. 1960. Low-power cold soda pulping. TAPPI Journal 

43(8): 200A-205A. 

Reviews briefly the history of cold soda pulping, emphasizing the various continuous methods 

used. Pulping data on Aspen, Birch, Oak, Bambusa polymorpha, and a hardwood mixture suggest that 

short impregnation periods and low h.p. result in completely defibrated pulp at high freeness. The 

principle of a new defibrating machine, the Chemifiner, and its contribution to the process described, 

are explained. 

392. Guha, S.R.D; Dhoundiyal, S.N; Mathur, G.M. 1975. Sulphate pulping of giant bamboo 

(Dendrocalamus giganteus). Indian Forester 101(5): 296-300. 

The results of a comparative laboratory scale investigation of the pulping of Dendrocalamus 

giganteus and Dendrocalamus strictus are recorded in this paper. The results show that D. giganteus 

is a better raw material than D. strictus for both unbleached grade pulps and bleached grade pulps. 

393. Guha, S.R.D; Jadhav, A.G; Sharma, Y.K. 1970. Effect of wet end additives on bamboo 

pulp. IPPTA 7(3): 235-240. 

Investigations on the effect of sixteen natural gums available commercially, two varieties of 

commercial carboxymethyl cellulose, viz; Cellpro LSH and Cellpro LVE and six samples of seed gums 

on bleached bamboo pulp are reported in this paper. 

394. Guha, S.R.D; Negi, J.S. 1972. The alkali resistant pentosans in bamboo. Indian Pulp and 

Paper 27(3/4): 69-71. 

A study of alkali-resistant pentosans in bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus) showed that treatment 

with alkali before chlorite treatment alone makes the pentosans non-resistant to alkali extraction, and 

that once pentosans are rendered non-resistant they cannot be converted into resistant pentosans. 

Fibre structure was found to play an important role in determining the alkali resistance of pentosans. 

Fragmentation of fibre permitted the removal of more pentosan. 

395. Guha, S.R.D; Pant, P.C. 1961. Bamboo pulps by neutral sulphite semi-chemical 

process. Research and Industry 6(2): 49-51. 

Pulps are made from cellulosic raw materials by the sulphate process. An investigation is carried 

out on the pulping of the bamboo, Dendrocalamus strictus by the neutral sulphite semi-chemical 

process with the aim of improving the yield and quality of the pulp and the results are presented in this 

paper. It is found that unbleached pulps (yield 56-68 percent) of satisfactory strength properties can be 

prepared from bamboo by NSSC process. When bleached, these pulps (yield 37-44 percent) are found 

to have satisfactory brightness and strength properties for the production of white papers. 

396. Guha, S.R.D; Pant, P.C. 1966. Sulphate pulping of Phyllostachys bambusoides. Indian 

Forester 92(7): 467-468. 

Bamboo, Phyllostachys bambusoides is tested for its suitability for paper pulp. The result shows 

that the yield, bleach consumption and strength properties of pulps obtained are comparable to those 

obtained from Dendrocalamus strictus except in the case of tear factor and folding endurance which 

are found lower in case of P. bambusoides. But the strength obtained is found sufficient for production 

of writing and printing papers. Results are tabulated. 

397. Guha, S.R.D; Sharma, Y.K; Jain, R.C; Jadhav, A.G. 1966. Chemical pulps for writing and 

printing papers from ringal (Arundinaria spp.). Indian Forester 92(10): 634-636. 

Laboratory experiments on the production of chemical pulp from ringal (Arundinaria sp.) for 

production of writing and printing papers by sulphate process are described. The average fibre length 

of pulp was 1.01 mm and average fibre diameter was 11 microns. It is reported that bleaching pulps in 

satisfactory yields can be prepared under suitable conditions of digestion. 

398. Guha, S.R.D; Singh, M.M; Mithal, K.C. 1966. Sulphate pulping of mixture of bamboo and 

mixed hardwoods. Indian Pulp and Paper 21(3). 

52

Laboratory experiments are described on production of kraft papers from mixtures of bamboo 

chips and mixed hardwoods. 

399. Isono, Z; Ono, K. 1967. Desilicification of high silica containing kraft liquors. Part I. 

Desilicification of black liquor by carbon dioxide treatment. Journal of Agricultural and 

Chemical Society of Japan 41: 220-225. 

400. Isono, Z; Ono, K. 1968. Desilicification of kraft green liquor by aluminium sulphate. 

Part II. Journal of Agricultural and Chemical Society of Japan 42: 18-23. 

401. Isono, Z; Ono, K. 1968. Desilicification of kraft liquors high in silica. Part III. 

Desilicification of kraft black liquor by aluminium sulphate. Journal of Agricultural and 

Chemical Society of Japan 42: 24-28. 

402. Isono, Z; Ono, K. 1968. Desilicification of kraft liquors high in silica. Part IV. 

Desilicification of kraft black liquor by magnesium sulphate and general consideration 

of the subject. Journal of Agricultural and Chemical Society of Japan 42: 29-32. 

403. Janci, J; Farkas, J; Gajdos, J. 1971. Neutral sulfite semichemical Bamboo pulps. Papir a 

Celuloza 26(12): 139-151. 

The results of a laboratory study of these pulps (made from Bambusa vulgaris) showed that they 

were suitable as a basic material for the middle layer of corrugated paper. 

404. Jauhari, M.B; Ghosh, P.C. 1984. High yield alkaline sulphite-anthraquinone pulping of 

bamboo. IPPTA 21(1): 45-50. 

An improved approach to produce high yield bleached chemical pulps is described. Alkaline 

sulphite solution with and without anthraquinone (AQ) under high temperature and pressure produced 

pulp of 25 and 32 Kappa number with unbleached screened yield of 61 and 60 percent respectively. 

Addition of 0.1 percent AQ on chips offered the advantage of producing pulp of low Kappa number with 

high pulp yield and also enabled to carry out the cooking at a much lower maximum temperature 

compared to where no AQ was added. The pulps could be easily bleached in three stages of calcium 

hypochlorite bleaching to brightness of 78 and 76 per cent with bleached pulp yield of 59.4 and 57.4 

percent respectively. The physical strength properties and opecity were matchingwith those of sulphate 

pulp in comparison with sulphate pulp. The alkaline sulphite -AQ pulp is obtained in about 7.7 percent 

greater pulp yield both in the unbleached and bleached state. The process offers advantages of higher 

unbleached/bleached pulp yield. Higher unbleached pulp brightness and greater ease of bleaching, are 

advantages over sulphate process for bamboo pulping. 

405. Kadarisman, D; Silitonga, T. 1974. Sulphate pulping of bamboo. Bulletin Penelitan Tek 

Hasil Pertanian 40: 14-17. 

406. Kar, S.K; Jena, S.C; Maheshwari, S. 1987. Effect of variation of moisture in bamboo 

chips on pulp and paper making characteristics. IPPTA 24(2): 49-54 

The storage of bamboo, the conventional raw material for papermaking in India, is necessary for 

continuous supply of this raw material throughout the year. It has been observed that due to storage, 

particularly in summer season, the moisture content reaches a very low level, which adversely affects 

the pulp and papaermaking properties. The present study reveals that though it is not practicable to 

attain higher percentage of moisture in bamboo as such by soaking in water but chips can be brought 

to a desired level of moisture content by soaking for a very short period in water pond. With increasing 

moisture content active alkali requirement in pulping decreases while the uniformity and pulp quality 

improve. The physical strength properties have aslo shown increasing moisture content. However, it 

may adversely affect the black liquor characteristics which will be obtained in less concentrated form. 

It has been concluded that an optimum moiture content may be maintained so as to get the uniform 

pulping and better quality of the pulp. 

53

407. Karim, M.S; Islam, M.A; Khalid ul Islam, M. 1994. Studies on muli bamboo (Bambusa 

baccifera) [pulped] by soda process and laboratory evaluation of unbleached and 

bleached pulps. Bangladesh Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research 29(1): 10-19. 

Data are presented on the chemical composition of muli bamboo (Bambusa baccifera [Melocanna 

baccifera]) before and after pulping, and on pulp properties before and after bleaching. The bleached 

pulps were suitable for making good quality writing and printing paper, and the unbleached pulps for 

packing and wrapping papers. 

408. Kato, F. 1955. On the digestion of bamboo pulp. Part 1. TAPPI Journal 9(3). 

409. Kato, F. 1955. On the digestion of bamboo pulp. Part 2. TAPPI Journal 9(5). 

410. Khanduri, S.C; Biswas, B. 1960. Some observations on the cold caustic treatment of 

Ringal (Arundinaria jaunsarensis) bamboo. Indian Pulp and Paper 14(10): 475-476. 

Discusses the effect of alkali treatment of A. jaunsarensis at 30 o C. The ash, pentosan, and lignin 

contents of the soaked material were found to decrease with increases in cellulose content and in the 

concentration of alkali in the soaking liquor. 

411. Mahanta, D; Chaliha, P.B. 1970. Pulping of bamboo by nitric acid. Chemical Age India 

20(2). 

412. Mahanta, D; Gohain, P.D; Rehman, A; Chaliha, P.B. 1979. Non-sulphur pulping of 

bamboo. Indian Pulp and Paper 34(1). 

413. Maheshwari, S; Gopichand, K. 1990. Studies on peroxide addition in extraction stage 

(CEpH) on optical properties of bamboo pulp. Pulping Conference: Proceedings 2: 481- 

485. 

414. McGorovern, J.N. 1962. Semichemical and mechanical pulping. In: Libby, C.E (Editor). 

Pulp and Paper Sicence and Technology Vol. I. McGraw - Hill, New York: 281-316. 

415. Mishra, B.P; Joshi, R.C; Banthia, U.S; Singh, M.M. 1984. Effect of sulfidity on alkaline 

pulping of bamboo, mixed hardwoods and a mixture of bamboo and mixed 

hardwoods. Indian Pulp and Paper 39(3): 7-16. 

Increasing sulphidity from 0 to 20 increased the yield, reduced the of rejects and the demand for 

bleach, and generally improved strength properties. The effects were greatest in the 60:40 mixture of 

bamboo and mixed hardwoods and least in bamboo only. Optimum sulphidity is 16 for bamboo, 20 for 

mixed hardwoods and 18 for bamboo/mixed hardwoods. 

416. Mukherjea, V.N; Guha, S.R.D. 1965. High-yield pulps by a hot caustic soda process. 


417. Nafziger, T.R; Clark, T.F; Wolff, I.A. 1960. Dissolving pulps from domestic timber 

bamboo, Phyllostachys bambusoides. TAPPI Journal 43(6): 591-596. 

418. Nafziger, T.R; Clark, T.F; Wolff, I.A. 1961. Newsprint from domestic timber bamboo, 

Phyllostachys bambusoides. TAPPI Journal 47(7): 472-475. 

Culms of P. bambusoides of not more than15 years, from Savannah, Ga., were used in tests to 

prepare chemical, semichemical and mechanical pulps, for newsprint. Yields of 82 and 62% for cold 

soda semichemical and neutral sulphite pulps respectively were attained, but stone grinding with and 

without chemical pre-treatment failed to produce satisfactory pulps from the mature culms. Strength 

characteristics of experimental newsprint from a furnish comprising 80% cold soda and 20% neutral 

sulphite pulps, 1% alum, 0.05% rosin, and 7% clay, were comparable to those of a control paper from 

a similar furnish of 80% Aspen groundwood and 20% unbeaten softwood sulphite pulps. Blends of 

Bamboo and wood pulps gave sheets of inferior strength in all combinations tried. It is suggested that 

further study of treatment before grinding and of the use of green Bamboo, and of the variables in the 

54

preparation of both chemical and mechanical pulps and of machine furnishes, might indicate the best 

treatments and also lead to end products superior to those here reported. 

419. Nicholas, P.M; Navarro, J.R. 1964. Standard cold soda pulping evaluation of Philippine 

woods and bamboos. TAPPI Journal 47(2): 98-105. 

420. Nirankari Devi; Bhola, P.P; Singh, M.M; Guha, S.R.D. 1982. Prehydrolysis of bamboo - 

effect of pH. Indian Forester 108(5): 342-353. 

The effect of pH on prehydrolysis of bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus) is examined. Acidic 

aqueous and soda lignins analysed by cooking bamboo chips in a solution of one per cent sulphuric 

acid, water and 10 percent sodium hydroxide for 90-150 minutes. The result shows that pulp yield 

decreases at higher pH and at more cooking time. The lignin yield from prehydrolysate decreases as 

the pH goes towards acidic side. The methoxyl content in isolated lignin decreases with the increase of 

lignin yield, while total OH increases. The acidic and aqueous lignins are less condensed than soda 

lignin. 

421. Oye, R; Mizuno, T. 1970. Studies on bamboo dissolving pulp, reactivity of bamboo pulp 

for viscose. Journal of Japan Wood Research Society 16(2): 92-96. 

Examines the relation between pulping conditions and the reactivity of dissolving pulp prepared 

from bamboo (Melocanna bambusoides) by the prehydrolysis sulphate process. Bamboo pulp has 

lower resistance to mercerization than hardwood pulp made by a similar process, and has low 

resistance to sulphidation. Its filterability is similar to that of wood pulps. Figures and tables have 

English legends. 

422. Oye, R; Mizuno, T. 1970. Studies on dissolving pulp characteristics of the bamboo 

pulp. Journal of Japan Wood Research Society 16(3): 135-139. 

Properties of dissolving pulp prepared from bamboo (Melocanna bambusoides?) by the 

prehydrolysis sulphate process influencing its suitability for viscose manudfacture were determined. In 

comparison with wood pulp bamboo pulp has a higher rate of depolymerization during ageing, low 

cold-alkali but comparatively high hot-alkali solubility, and a similar degree of crystallinity, but a higher 

rate of acid hydrolysis and lower levelling-off DP. 

423. Oye, R; Mizuno, T. 1972. Prehydrolysis sulphate cooking of bamboo. TAPPI Journal 

26(7): 363-371. 

424. Raitt, W. 1931. The digestion of bamboo and grasses for paper making. Crosby 

Lockwood & Son, London. 

425. Sanyal, A.K; Devgan, R.C. 1964. Use of elemental sulphur in soda cooking of bamboo 

(Dendrocalamus strictus). Indian Pulp and Paper 18(9): 521-523. 

426. Semana, J.A. 1965. Study of the variable in sulphate pulping of giant bamboo 

(Gigantochloa aspera Kurz.). Indian Pulp and Paper 20(6): 395, 397-399, 401, 403-406. 

427. Singh, M.M; Sharma, Y.K; Pant, R. 1970. High yield pulps - two stage pulping. Journal of 

the Indian Academy of Wood Science 1(1): 39-42. 

To increase the yield of pulp for the production of kraft papers from bamboo and Eucalyptus 

grandis, experiments were conducted by splitting the digestion into two stages with an intermediate 

refining stage and the results were presented. The yield of bamboo pulp was found increased from 

47.1 to 53.3 percent without any significant effect on the strength properties of the pulp. 

428. Singh, S.P; Joshi, H.C. 1988. Plywood adhesives from black liquor of bamboo 

Dendrocalamus strictus. Journal of the Indian Academy of Wood Science 19(1): 47-51. 

Black liquor, a lignin-rich byproduct from the pulping of D. strictus, was used as a replacement for 

phenol (at 10-60) in the preparation of phenolic adhesives for plywood. The resulting adhesive (a 

phenol-lignin formaldehyde resin) was tested for use in making 3-ply plywood from veneers of Vateria 

55

indica and Ulmus [Pinus] wallichiana. The boards were tested for glue adhesion strength in dry, hot 

wet, and mycological tests. The black liquor itself had 12.94 solids, 3.8 ash and pH 9.5. Replacement 

of phenol by black liquor progressively decreased the solid content of the adhesive, and the glue 

spread. At up to 50 of phenol replacement the adhesive met the strength requirements of Indian 

Standard IS:848-1974 for the BWR adhesive grade, but at 60 the BWR grade was not met with V. 

indica plywood. 

429. Singh, S.V; Guha, S.R.D. 1975. Kinetics of alkaline pulping of Bamboo. Indian Pulp and 

Paper 30(3): 15-25. 

Changes in yield, chemical composition and strength properties of chemical and semi-chemical 

pulps were determined during the kraft pulping of Dendrocalamus strictus, throughout the cooking 

cycle. Up to 70 yield, there was a linear correlation between lignin in pulp and pulp kappa number, and 

also between lignin to carbohydrate ratio and yield. Regression equations were developed from which 

kappa number, or lignin in pulp can be predicted for controlling the pulping process up to a yield of 70. 

430. Singh, S.V; Guha, S.R.D. 1976. The H factor of bamboo sulphate pulping: A device to 

control pulp mill operation. IPPTA 13(1): 57-60. 

The sulphate pulping of bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus) is studied from beginning to the end of 

cook, applying the concept of representing the times and temperatures of the cooking cycle by Vroom' 

H factor. The experimental results showed that the Hfactor can be employed as a means of predicting 

compensating adjustments of cooking times and temperatures to give the same yield of pulp, kappa 

number and lignin content with varying cooking cycles. This indicated that the concept of H factor can 

suitably be applied as a guide for controlling sulphate pulping process of bamboo in mills by predicting 

times for a variety of temperatures or vice-versa to make necessary adjustments in the cooking cycle, 

so as to get equivalent pulp yield. For the experimental standard cooking cycle employed in this 

investigation (90 min. from 80 to 170 degree C and 90 min. at 170 degree C) the H factor was found to 

be 91982. 

431. Tshiamala, T; Fraipont, L; Paquot, M; Thonart, P; Mottet, A. 1984. Comparative study of 

different bamboo pulps. Holzforschung 38(5): 281-288. 

Sulphate, neutral sulphite, lime and thermo-mechanical pulps were prepared from Bambusa 

vulgaris, B. viridi, Gigantochloa apus and G. aspera. The chemical properties of the pulps were 

analysed in relation to their effect on paper properties. Neutral sulphite pulp gave the best results, with 

high yield and satisfactory paper mechanical properties. 

432. Tsuji, H; Isono, Z; Ono, K. 1965. Studies on the dissolving bamboo pulp. Bulletin of the 

University of Osaka Prefecture, Sakai, 16B(January): 89-104. 

Dissolving pulp can be prepared by pre-hydrolysis cooking at 160o or 165 o C for 4 hr., followed by 

sulphate cooking at 160 o C for 2 hr., with total NaOH 20, and sulphidity 20. With these pre-hydrolysis 

conditions, pentosans were

435. Vyas, G.M; Bhat, R.V; Chowdhury, K.A. A process for the treatment of bamboo to further 

its utilization in the manufacture of pulp, paper or the like. Indian Patent No. 49054. 

436. Vyas, G.M; Bhat, R.V; Chowdhury, K.A. An improved process for the treatment of 

bamboo to further its utilization in the manufacture of pulp, paper or the like. Indian 

Patent No. 57267. 

437. Wang, H. 1981. The application of anthraquinone in the pulping of bamboo waste. 

Proceedings of Bamboo Production and Utilization. XVII IUFRO World Congress, 6-17 

September 1981, Kyoto, Japan. Wood Research Institute, Kyoto University, Japan: 131-135. 

438. Wang, H; Lirn, T.R. 1984. Study on the high yield pulping of bamboo waste. Forest 

Products Industries 3(1): 32-48. 

Shavings and nodes of Dendrocalamus latiflorus, Phyllostachys edulis and P. makino [makinoi] 

were pulped using the neutral sulphite-anthraquinone process. Fibre dimensions were measured and 

chemical composition (ash, lignin, cellulose etc.) and mechanical properties were recorded. On av. 

fibres were 2.05-2.84 µm long and 15.1-21.2 µm wide, with length/width ratios of 135-162. D. latiflorus 

had the longest fibres. Ash and extractive contents of bamboo wastes were higher than those of wood. 

Lignin content was lower than that of softwood, but similar to that of hardwood. The lignin content of P. 

edulis was the highest. Yields and pulp strength (breaking length, burst and tear factors) are tabulated 

for varying total alkali, alkali ratio and anthraquinone in the pulping process. 

439. Wang, K.T. 1982. Alkaline sulphite pulping of Bambusa arundinacea with the addition 

of anthraquinone. Bulletin, Taiwan Forestry Research Institute 378: 12p. 

440. Yamagishi, K; Satonaka, S; Hanzawa, M. 1970. Studies on pulping of Sasa with per 

acetic acid. Research Bulletin on Experimental Forestry, Hokkaido University, Japan 27(2): 

459-486. 

Sasa Bamboo (S. senanensis etc.) is plentiful on high land in Hokkaido, where stands may contain 

ca. 700,000 stems/ha. with a weight of ca. 60 [metric] tons/ha.; this important forest resource has 

hitherto scarcely been used. Powdered wood meal of Sasa was effectively delignified by treatment with 

peracetic acid (PA) at 70°C., and the pulp yield was 57.3%. A high yield of pulp with a low lignin 

content was also obtained by pulping Sasa chips with PA; the brightness of this pulp was high but the 

pentosan content was >20%. As regards its strength properties, the PA pulp was markedly superior in 

breaking length and burst factor, and slightly superior in tear factor, to a semi-kraft pulp of similar yield 

and lignin content, while its folding endurance was satisfactory. The strength properties of a Birch 

(Betula platyphylla var. japonica) pulp obtained by PA pulping were, however, superior to those of the 

Sasa pulp. Microscopic observation of the latter revealed fibres with an intact structure, accompanied 

by many small parenchyma cells. 

441. Yamaguchi, H; Nagamori, N; Sakata, I. 1991. Applications of the dehydrogenative 

polymerization of vanillic acid to bonding of woody fibres. Journal of the Japan Wood 

Research Society 37(3): 220-226. 

Composite boards were made by treating thermomechanical pulp with vanillic acid that had been 

dehydrogenatively polymerized by a crude peroxidase prepared from madake (Phyllostachys 

bambusoides) bamboo shoots. 

442. Yao, G.Y; Zou, Z.X. 1986. The pulping of bamboo (Phyllostachys pubescens) with 

alkaline sodium sulfite-anthraquinone. Journal of Nanjing Forestry University No. 4: 

50-58. 

57

Kraft Pulping 

443. Alam, M.R; Barua, I.B; Islam, N. 1997. To study the effect of sulphidity variation in kraft 

pulping of muli bamboo (Melocanna bambusoides). Bangladesh Journal of Scientific and 

Industrial Research 32(1): 111-114. 

The optimum limit of sulfidity in kraft (sulfate) pulping of muli bamboo (Melocanna bambusoides) 

was studied in the process used at Karnaphuli Paper Mills in Chandraghona, Bangladesh. About 17 

sulfidity gave the best quality of pulp. 

444. Bajpai, P; Bajpai, P.K. 1996. Application of xylanases in prebleaching of bamboo kraft 

pulp. TAPPI Journal 79(4): 225-230. 

The effectiveness of 12 commercial enzymes was evaluated for prebleaching bamboo [Bambusa 

arundinacea and Dendrocalamus strictus] kraft pulp. Different xylanases varied in the maximum 

obtainable effect. The enzymes Bleachzyme F and Irgazyme 40S were able to decrease the active Cl2 

requirement in the first stage of bleaching by 20 or decrease the ClO2 in the last stage of brightening 

by 4 kg/metric tonne of pulp in the CDEHD sequence. Alternatively, at the same chemical charge, it 

was possible to increase the final brightness approaching 89 ISO. The use of enzymes had no adverse 

effect on the pulp viscosity and strength properties. 

445. Bhandari, K.S. 1981. Kraft pulping of Oxytenanthera ritcheyi. Indian Forester 107(7): 

454-458. 

Kraft pulps from Oxytenanthera ritcheyi are produced in laboratory at three different cooking 

schedule and chemical concentrations. On the basis of pulp evaluation for various strength properties 

kappa number and unbleached pulp yield, optimum pulping conditions are reported. Kraft pulp 

obtained at optimum conditions is bleached and bleaching conditions, bleached pulp yield, brightness 

and various strength properties of bleached pulp sheets are also reported. It is found that 

Oxytenanthera ritcheyi is a suitable raw material for the production of wrapping, writing and printing 

paper. 

446. Bhargava, M.P; Chattar Singh. 1942. Interim report on the manufacture of kraft paper 

from bamboos. Indian Forest Bulletin (New Series) Utilisation 112: 13p. 

Investigations are carried out at the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun to explore the 

possibilities of manufacturing kraft paper. It is established the suitability of bamboo as a raw material 

for the manufacture of kraft paper. 

447. Bhowmick, K; Mian, A.J; Akhteruzzaman, A.F.M. 1991. Anthraquinone as an aditive in 

kraft pulping of muli bamboo (Melocanna baccifera). Forpride News 3(5). 

448. Bhowmick, K; Mian, A.J; Akhtaruzzaman, A.F.M. 1991. Effect of anthraquinone in low 

sulphidity kraft pulping of muli bamboo (Melocanna baccifera). IPPTA 3(4): 26-33. 

Low sulphidity kraft pulping of mill-cut muli bamboo (Melocanna baccifera) with anthraquinone 

(AQ) addition was studied in the laboratory scale. AQ acted as a pulping catalyst and increased the 

rate of delignification or decreased the alkali demand. The viscosity of AQ catalysed low sulphidity 

kraft pulps was almost equal to the kraft control and better than the pulp of 15 percent sulphidity. It 

was also observed that the burst, tear and tensile strength properties of the pulp increased on addition 

of AQ. The strength properties were almost same or better than the pulp obtained in normal kraft 

pulping. The use of AQ is beneficial at a low sulphidity level in preserving the pulp yield and improving 

the quality of the pulp. This will reduce the air pollution problems because of a lower sulphidity input in 

the cooling. 

449. Bhowmick, K; Akhtaruzzaman, A.F.M; Mian, A.J. 1992. Economic benefits of soda and 

kraft anthraquinone pulping of muli bamboo (Melocanna baccifera). Bangladesh 

Journal of Forest Science 21(1/2): 13-19. 

Results of a tentative economic analysis made on kraft and soda anthraquinone pulping of muli 

bamboo (Melocanna baccifera) are presented. It shows that compared to soda pulping better benefits 

58

can be achieved in soda + AQ pulping. Reports that a mill producing 30,000 tons of pulp annually can 

save TK 52.5 million by using soda + AQ process. Addition of AQ in low sulphidity kraft pulping is also 

reported profitable. Kraft 15 + AQ pulping of muli bamboo is capable of saving TK 30 million compared 

to kraft 15 without AQ and TK 7.6 million compared to normal kraft pulping. Addition of AQ in normal 

kraft pulping is reported not very encouraging where only TK 5 million is saved compared to normal 

kraft cook. 

450. Bhowmick, K; Akhtaruzzaman, A.F.M; Jabbar Mian, A. 1994. Soda-anthraquinone and low 

sulphidity kraft anthraquinone pulping of Muli bamboo (Melocanna baccifera) and 

mixed wood in a mixture in Bangladesh. Bangladesh Journal of Forest Science, 

Bangladesh 23(1): 20-25. 

Pulping of bamboo-hardwoods in a mixture showed that H-factor required in soda plus AQ and low 

sulphidity kraft plus AQ was slightly lower than the calculated value from the mixture of the 

components. The total pulp yield for kraft15 plus AQ was higher than the calculated value. But for soda 

plus AQ it was lower from the theoretical value. The tensile strength of the pulp obtained in soda plus 

AQ process was better upto 60 bamboo chips in the mixture. It showed superior quality with more than 

60 bamboo in the component in low sulphidity kraft pulping. The bursting strength of the pulp 

decreased as the bamboo chips increased in kraft15 plus AQ pulping. The tear strength behaved 

almost linearly with any proportion of bamboo chips with wood chips. 

451. Bose, S.K; Chowdhury, A.R; Akhtaruzzaman, A.F.M. 1988. Influence of age on kraft 

pulping of Muli bamboo (Melocanna baccifera). Bano Bigyan Patrika 17(1/2): 41-45. 

In this study an attempt has been made to find out the optimum cutting cycle for Muli bamboo 

(Melocanna baccifera) from the point of view of pulp yield and quality. The results show that bleachable 

grade of pulp is obtained at a lower cooking time with younger bamboos (9 months old) than those of 

higher age groups. The pulp yield at a given point of delignification is the highest with 21 months old 

bamboos. Physical strength properties of the pulp are independent of age. Thus, it seems that 21 

months old Muli bamboo is better for pulping. 

452. Chao, S.C; Pan, T.T. 1972. Manufacture of kraft pulp from Taiwan Bamboos. Co 

operative Bulletin, Taiwan Forestry Research Institute with Joint Commission on Rural 

Reconstruction 19: 10p. 

Gives the results of sulphate pulping tests on Bambusa beecheyana var. pubescens, B. 

dolichoclada, B. stenostachya, Dendrocalamus latiflorus and Phyllostachys makinoi. All the pulps had 

good strength properties, and tearing strengths were especially high. Pulp yields varied with cooking 

conditions from 41 to 47. Results of bleaching tests are also given. 

453. Chen, J.X; Yu, J.L; Zhan, H.Y. 1987. Study on mechanisms of kraft and AS-AQ pulping 

of bamboo. Cellul. Chem. Technol. 21(6). 

454. Gomide, J.L; Colodette, J.L; Oliveira R.C. de. 1981. Influence of active alkali and 

temperature on the kraft pulping of Bambusa vulgaris. Revista Arvore 5(2): 181-193. 

455. Goyal, P; Misra, N.D. 1980. Economics of bamboo and mixed hardwoods pulping by 

AQ-catalysed kraft process. Zonal Seminar on High Yielding and Pulping and Bleaching of 

Pulps, 20-21 September, Dehra Dun. 

456. Goyal, P; Mishra, N.D. 1982. Vapour phase kraft pulping of bamboo (Dendrocalamus 

strictus). Indian Pulp and Paper 37(3). 

457. Guha, S.R.D; Om Bahadur; Mathur, G.M. 1980. Production of kraft paper from bamboo 

(Melocanna baccifera) of Mizoram. Indian Forester 106(8): 578-582. 

To identify the appropriate bamboo species for the production of Kraft paper, Cellulose and Paper 

branch of FRI Dehra Dun, made a study on Melacanna baccifera which is the main species available in 

Mizoram. Investigations carried out, on the production of unbleached and bleached grades of pulps 

from M.baccifera (syn. M. bambusoides) by sulphate. Result of the experiments showed that M. 

baccifera was the suitable fibrous raw material for Kraft paper making. 

59

457a. Guha, S.R.D; Singh, M.M; Sharma, Y.K; Gulati, A.S. 1966. Wrapping, writing and 

printing papers from bamboo dust. Indian Pulp and Paper 21(3): 187. 

458. Jamaludin K; Jalil A.A; Abdul Latif Mohamod. 1993. Kraft pulping of Bambusa vulgaris. 

BIC-India Bulletin 3(1): 7-10. 

The sutablility of Bambusa vulgaris as a raw material for pulp by the kraft process is examined. 

Pulp yield ranged from 45 to 53 percent. Results from this preliminary study indicate that B. vulgaris is 

a moderate to poor material for pulping. 

459. Koorse, G.M; Veeramani, H. 1976. Engineering properties of spent pulping liquors. I. 

Specific gravity of bamboo, bagasse and eucalyptus kraft black liquors. Indian Pulp 

and Paper 31(1). 

460. Koorse, G.M; Veeramani, H. 1976. Engineering properties spents pulping liquors. II. 

Thermal conductivity of bamboo and bagasse and eucalyptus kraft black liquors. 

Indian Pulp and Paper 31(4). 

461. Kuang, S.J; Revol, J.F; Goring, D.A.I. 1985. A comparison of the mercerization of kraft 

pulp from spruce and bamboo. Cellul. Chem. Technol. 19(2). 

462. Kulkarni, A.G; Kolambe, S.L; Mathur, R.M; Pant, R. 1984. Studies on desilication of 

bamboo kraft black liquor. IPPTA 21(1): 37-44. 

An attempt is made for desilication by the method of lowering the pH of the black liquor by 

carbonation. The bamboo kraft black liquor usually contains silica in the range of 5-8 g/l as SiO2}. It is 

tried to see the effect of pH and temperature on silica precipitation and also to achieve selective 

precipitation of silica. Studies revealed that temperature and pH are the two important parameters to 

be optimised. The pH range for silica precipitation is largely influenced by the temperature during 

carbonation. It is revealed that at all temperature and pH levels there was a coprecipitation of lignin. 

Studies are also made for achieving selective precipitation of silica. Treatment of sludge with calcium 

oxide or aluminium hydroxide at 80 o C helps in redissolution of coprecipitated lignin without dissolving 

silica portion. Leaf filter studies indicated that the carbonated black liquor could be filtered easily on 

600 mesh nylon cloth under reduced pressure of about 0.3 kg/cm 2 }. 

463. Luo, C.C; Wang, Y.F. 1991. A modified design to produce kraft liner board using 

bamboo pulp. In: Selected Papers on Recent Bamboo Research in China. Chinese 

Academy of Forestry, Beijing and Bamboo Information Centre, China: 247-255. 

464. Maheshwari, S. 1979. Anthraquinone as additive in kraft pulping of bamboo 

(Dendrocalamus strictus). Indian Pulp and Paper 33(5). 

465. Nazak, R.G; Handigol, M.P.H; Deb, V.K; Jaspal, N.S. 1979. AQ as an aditive in kraft 

pulping of bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus). Indian Pulp and Paper 33(5): p17. 

466. Nazak, R.G; Handigol, M.P.H; Deb, V.K; Jaspal, N.S. 1979. Studies on kraft pulping of 

mixed tropical hardwoods in the presence of AQ. Paper presented in the IPPTA 

Seminar, March 1979. 

467. Nepenin, N; Bang, D.S. 1969. Obtaining kraft pulp from Vietnam bamboo. Cellulose 

Chemistry and Technology 3(6): 681-700. 

Laboratory studies have shown that by maintaining optimum conditions for sulphate cooking it is 

possible to obtain good-quality kraft pulp with a yield of 45 from old Neohouzeaua dullooa. 

468. Pravin, G. 1987. Improved process control strategy for liquid phase kraft pulping of 

bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus). IPPTA 24(4): 41-47. 

60

Conventional liquid phase kraft pulping of bamboo is studied to develop an improved process 

control strategy so as to produce pulp of uniform quality. 

469. Rao, V.G; Murthy, N.V.S.R; Annam Raju, P.V; Sharma, G.S.R.P. 1983. Effect of pulp 

extractives on sizing. Journal of Wood Chemistry and Technology 3(3): 371-376. 

The effect of specific extractive components of bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus) and tropical 

mixed hardwoods kraft pulps on sizing is studied. It is found that the removal of the extractive 

components by diethyl ether improves sizing substantially, which may be attributed to the presence of 

oleic acid and its derivatives in the extractives. To substantiate this, the effect of added oleic acid and 

methyl oleate on sizing is also studied. The possible mechanism of action of these compounds is also 

postulated. 

470. Rawat Rajesh; Sharma, G.D; Bhargava, G.G; Mohan, S.M. 1985. Kraft anthraquinone 

pulping of bamboo + mixed hard woods (70:30) bamboo (100 percent) and mixed hard 

woods (100 percent). IPPTA 22(3): 39-47. 

Laboratory scale kraft pulping studies are carried out at 17 percent sulphidity on bamboo + mixed 

hard woods (70:30) and compared the findings with bamboo (100 per cent) and mixed hard woods 

(100 per cent) using anthraquinone. It is reported that by adding different anthraquinone dosages (0.05 

per cent to 0.25 per cent) the kappa no. of bamboo + mixed hardwoods (70:30) reduces. The bleach 

consumption of all the anthraquinone based pulps is lower and physical strength properties are 

superior to the pulps without anthraquinone additive. It is reported that anthraquinone in small dosage 

(0.05 per cent) is more effective in improving the yield of bamboo + mixed hard woods (70:30) digested 

at higher kappa no. than with lower kappa no. digested bamboo and mixed hardwoods. 

471. Semana, J.A; Escolano, J.O; Monsalud, M.R. 1967. The kraft pulping qualities of some 

Philippine bamboos. TAPPI Journal 50(8): 416-419. 

The kraft pulping properties of Gigantochloa levis, G.aspera, Schizostachyum lumampao, 

Bambusa vulgaris, B. vulgaris var.striata and B.blumeana are studied. These bamboos are reported to 

have higher range of ash and silica contents than those ofother Asian species but lower lignin contents 

than those of Indian species. The Philippine bamboos are easily digested and bleachable pulps with 

permanganate numbers from 13.0 to 18.2 and screened pulp yield from 41.3 to 48.0 are obtained. The 

bamboos gave pulp with higher tearing resistance but lower folding endurance bursting strength and 

tensile strength than foreign softwood kraft pulps and Philippine hardwood kraft pulps. The relative 

rigidity and moderate length of the bamboo fibres are associated with the strength differences between 

bamboo pulps and the other pulps. 

472. Shah, M.A; Goswami, N.C; Akhtaruzzaman, A.F.M. 1991. Influence of active alkali on the 

kinetics of kraft pulping of muli bamboo (Melocanna baccifera). IPPTA 3(2): 62-68. 

A study is made to find out to what extent the cooking is to be continued in kraft pulping of muli 

bamboo (Melocanna baccifera). The effect of active alkali charge is also studied. The investigation 

shows three distinct phases in delignification during kraft pulping of this bamboo. The rate of 

delignification increase with an increase in active alkali charge. The transition points between the 

initial and bulk, and between the bulk and residual phases shifted to a lower lignin content with an 

increase in alkali charge. The use of an active alkali charge of 16 per cent as NaOH seems to be 

insufficient to confine the cook in the bulk delignification phase. On increasing the active alkali charge 

to 18 per cent as NaOH, the situation has improved. 

472a. Sproull, R.C. 1955. TAPPI Journal 38: 593. 

473. Ujiie, M; Matsumoto, A. 1967. Studies on semi-kraft pulps from Sasa senanensis. Part I. 

Selection of the cooking conditions and comparison with Birch and Larch semi-kraft 

pulps. Research Bulletin of Experimental Forestry, Hokkaido University, Japan 25(1): 

287-321. 

Kraft semichemical pulps were prepared from culms of S. senanensis from Teshio (Hokkaido) 

under various conditions, and their yield and chemical and physical properties were compared with 

those of S. senanensis water-cooked pulps and of Betula platyphylla var. japonica and Larix leptolepis 

similarly prepared, or with previous data on sulphate pulps of S. senanensis and hardwoods. The 

61

Bamboo pulps with the best physical properties were prepared with the use of 15% active alkali, which 

also enabled the yield to be increased by ca. 5% compared with that of conventional S. senanensis 

sulphate pulps, and gave a pulp with excellent chemical properties (superior to those of the Larch 

pulps and a little inferior to those of the Birch pulps). Fibre length (mean 1.26 mm.) slightly exceeded 

that of Birch. The low yield of the Bamboo pulp compared with that of hardwoods (unavoidable 

because of the high extractive content) can be reduced at the expense of strength by pulping with only 

10% or even 5% active alkali. 

474. Vivone, R.R; Gomide, J.L. 1985. Effect of storage time of straw and moisture content of 

chips on the characteristics and properties of kraft pulp from bamboo. ABCP 18th 

annual meeting held during paper week, 18-22 November 1985 in Sao Paulo, Brazil. ABCP, 

Sao Paulo, Brazil. Vol. 1: 129-137. 

Pulps from recently-gathered bamboo (Bambusa vulgaris), with and without air drying, and 

bamboo stored for 4 months after collection were compared. Results indicate that storing bamboos for 

relatively long periods (4 months) should be avoided and that air drying facilitates processing without 

reducing pulp quality. 

Rayon Grade Pulping 

475. Bhat, R.V; Viramani, K.C. 1961. Viscose rayon pulp from Ochlandra travancorica by 

prehydrolysis sulphate process. Indian Pulp and Paper 16(5). 

476. Chandrasekharan, C. 1968. Indian forest resources for rayon grade pulp. Indian Forester 

94(12): 871-877. 

Only bamboo is used commercially in India for dissolving pulp. Recent analyses of other Indiangrown 

tree species and of hardwood mixtures are tabulated. 

477. Gupta, N.K; Jain, S.C. 1966. Utilization of bamboo dust (1) Paper and rayon grade 

pulps. Indian Pulp and Paper 20(7). 

477a. Horio, M; Takhama, M. 1958. Bulletin of the Institute of Chemical Research, Kyoto 

University Japan 36(5): p157. 

477b. Karnik, M.G. 1958. Indian Pulp and Paper 13(6): p283. 

478. Karnik, M.G. 1961. Viscose rayon grade pulps from bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus) 

by water prehydrolysis sulphate process. Indian Pulp and Paper 15(11). 

479. Karnik, M.G. 1961. Viscose rayon grade pulps from bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus), 

Preliminary investigation. Indian Pulp and Paper 14. 

480. Karnik, M.G; Sen, D.L. 1948. Some promising cellulose-bearing materials (other than 

cotton) for the manufacture of rayon. Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research 7(8): 

351-356. 

Pulps from reeds, bamboo species (Bambusa arundinacea, Dendrocalamus strictus and Kamti 

bamboo), bagasse pulp and jute fibres compared favourably with an American alpha-pulp and a 

Swedish sulphite pulp. The analytical values obtained came within the limits for rayon pulp. Results 

are tabulated. 

480a. Karnik, M.G; Sen, D.L. 1958. Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research (India) 7(8): p35. 

480b. Lele, P.S. 1964. Investigation of the Indian raw materials for the production of pulp 

suitable for the rayon industry. Chemical Age India 15(2): 173-176. 

62

481. Ramsarma, B.V. 1962. Manufacture of rayon grade pulp from bamboo. Sirpur Industrial 

Journal 1(2): 97-99. 

482. Saboo, R.N. 1992. Role of bamboo in the manufacture of rayon grade pulp. Proceedings 

of the National Seminar on Bamboos, 19-20 December 1990, Bangalore. Bamboo Society 

of India, Bangalore: 53-59. 

Need for raising plantations suitable for pulp and paper is stressed. A general picture of the 

process of manufacturing dissolving grade pulp is projected here. Fibre length, pentosans present and 

ash analysis of various raw materials used for making pulp are also presented. 

482a. Simionescu, C. 1956. Celluloza Hirtie (Bucharest 5(7): p156. 

482b. Simionescu, C. 1957. Papeterie 79: p589. 

482c. Simionescu, C. 1958. Celluloza Hirtie (Bucharest) 5(5): p171. 

483. Singh, M.M; Bhola, P.P. 1968. Production of rayon grade pulp. Proceedings of the 

Symposium on Utilization of Hardwoods for Pulp and Paper. August 1968, FRI & Colleges, 

Dehra Dun, India: 73-85. 

484. Suzuki, H. 1964. Rayon pulp from bamboo. Chemical Age 15(6): p582. 

485. Wang, Z.W. 1991. Status and prospects of textile shuttles made from bamboo fibre. 

Chongquing Forest Science Technology (2): 56-57. 

This paper gives the status and prospects of textile shuttles made from bamboo fibre. 

Mixed Pulping 

486. Bhargava, K.S. 1968. Utilization of mixed hardwoods at Bengal Paper Mills. Proceedings 

of the Symposium on Utilization of Hardwoods for Pulp and Paper, 1-3 August 1968. 

487. Bhargava, K.S; Sharma, M.C; Maheshwari, D.K. 1969. The effect of impregnation 

temperature and alkali concentration on cooking of mixture of bamboo and mixed 

hardwoods. Indian Pulp and Paper 24(5): 257-258. 

In a laboratory study on pulping a mixture of 60 Dendrocalamus strictus and 40 mixed hardwoods 

(70) Boswellia serrata in Bengal, the optimum unbleached pulp yield from chips cooked with 18.5-20 

active alkali (NaOH) was obtained at an impregnation temperature of 125 o C. With a higher alkali 

concentration, a lower impregnation temperature can be used, but the total yield of unbleached pulp is 

reduced. 

488. Bhat, R.V; Karnik, M.G. 1958. Bamboo and blue gum pulps for grease proof paper. 

Research and Industry 3(9). 

489. Chiou, C.H; Tsai, L.H. 1982. Pulping experiments on a mixture of bamboo and mixed 

hardwoods. Bulletin, Taiwan Forestry Research Institute No. 366: 5p. 

Trials to investigate sulphate pulping of different proportions of bamboo residue and mixed 

hardwoods revealed that a mixture containing 30 or 40 bamboo residue gave a satisfactory yield with 

good strength properties. 

490. Dwivedi, R.P; Dubey, R.K; Kaul, S.S; Singh, M.M. 1983. High yield semichemical pulping 

of mixture of bamboo and mixed hardwoods. IPPTA 20(3): p43. 

63

491. Ghosh, S.R; Saikia, C.N. 1996. Mixed pulping of bamboo and khagra reed and 

evaluation of paper characteristics. IPPTA 8(1): 19-32. 

Khagra reed, Neyraudia reynaudiana is one of the important non-wood plants, that grows 

abundantly in the forests of the North Eastern states. Laboratory scale experiments were carried out 

for mixed pulping of bamboo and khagra reed chips and conditions of pulping were optimised. It was 

found that bamboo and reed chips mixed in the ratio 4:1, when cooked with 16 active alkali (as Na2O), 

for 2 h at 170±2 o C gave unbleached pulp with 44.4 yield, which was easily bleachable. Standard paper 

sheets from both unbleached and bleached pulps were formed and their physical strength properties 

were evaluated. The study carried out has indicated that mixed pulping of bamboo and reed is possible 

and khagra reed may be a potential source of supplementary cellulosic raw material for paper industry. 

492. Goyal, P; Mishra, N.D. 1982. Economics of bamboo and hardwood pulping by 

anthraquinone catalysed-kraft process. Zonal Seminar on High Yielding Pulping and 

Bleaching of Pulps at F.R.I, Dehra Dun, 20-21 September 1980. IPPTA 19(1): 1-5. 

With a view to study the economy of pulping bamboo and tropical mixed hardwoods using 

anthraquinone, laboratory studies were conducted to confirm the benefits of AQ-addition in kraft 

pulping liquor. A test case showed that the cost of pulp production can be reduced by Rs.80/ per M.T. 

for bamboo and tropical mixed hardwoods in a medium-sized pulp milk. 

493. Guha, S.R.D; Singh, M.M; Bhola, P.P. 1977. Pulping of Anogeissus spp. and Tectona 

grandis (lops and tops) for newsprint. Indian Forester 103(3): 196-202. 

A report on a pulping trial by semi-chemical processes (soda and kraft). Optimum conditions of 

chemical concn., sulphidity, temp. and time were found. The pulps of Anogeissus spp. were darker and 

required bleaching. Satisfactory newsprint was made by mixing Anogeissus or Tectona with 40 

bamboo pulp. 

493a. Jurasck, L. 1987. Proceedings of the Symposium on Bioconversion and Utilization of Wood 

Material, University of Maine, College of Forest Resources. 

494. Khare, A; Joshi, R.C; Bhargava, G.G; Singh, M.M. 1984. Behaviour of mill bamboo, 

bamboo + mixed hard woods (70: 30) percent, bamboo + mixed hardwoods (50: 50) 

percent and mixed-hardwoods kraft black liquor on evaporation and addition of alkali. 

IPPTA 21(3): 29-36. 

Mill weak black liquor, bamboo, bamboo + mixed hard woods (70:30), bamboo + mixed 

hardwoods (50:50) and hard woods black liquor are evaporated to different total solid contents to see 

the behavior of these liquor especially on black liquor viscosity and density. It is observed that mixed 

hardwoods black liquor has higher viscosity as compared to bamboo and with increase in hard wood 

percentage the viscosity of black liquor increase as go on increasing the percentage of total solids. It is 

reported that the black liquor viscosity of bamboo, bamboo + mixed hard woods in different proportion 

and mixed hard woods can be reduced with increase in initial residual alkali of the black liquor. This will 

help in reducing the clogging of the evaporator tubes and better performance of the recovery. 

495. Maheshwari, S. 1975. Studies on chlorination of sulfate pulps of bamboo, eucalyptus 

and hard woods. Indian Pulp and Paper 30(1). 

496. Mai-Aung, U; Htway, D.K; Kyaw, Z.U. 1968. Mixed pulping of bamboo grown in Pegu 

Yoma. Part II.. Union of Burma Journal of Science and Technology 1(3): 561-569. 

Describes trials which showed that all 11 species of Bamboo known to grow in the Pegu Yoma 

could be used in mixture for the production of bleached kraft pulp, using techniques developed for the 

two most abundant species Cephalostachyum pergracile and Bambusa polymorpha. Resulting pulps 

had similar brightness and strength values, though inclusion of Dendrocalamus brandisii could slightly 

decrease brightness values. 

497. Pasaribu, R.A; Silitonga, T. 1974. Mixed pulping of hardwood and Bamboo. Laporan, 

Lembaga Penelitian Hasil Hutan 35: 24p. 

64

Reports pulping trials by the sulphate process on a 3-component mixture of Anthocephalus 

cadamba, Aleurites moluccana and a mixture of four Bamboos (Bambusa bambos, B. vulgaris, 

Dendrocalamus asper and Gigantochloa ater) all from Sulawesi (Celebes). Data on fibre dimensions 

and wall thickness are also tabulated (with English captions):all species had low Runkel ratios, 

showing their suitability for pulping. Cooking conditions are recommended for mixed pulping of 

hardwoods and Bamboo or mixed hardwoods alone. The strength properties of pulps containing 

different component ratios are discussed. 

498. Rai, P.A; Jaspal, N.S. 1976. Mixed pulping of bamboo and hardwoods. IPPTA 13(4): 

328-339. 

Kraft pulps were made from mixtures of bamboo and Indian hardwoods (Lagerstroemia lanceolata, 

Adina cordifolia, Mitragyna parvifolia, Grewia tiliaefolia, Terminalia belerica, Kydia calycina, 

Anogeissus latifolia and Tectona grandis). 

499. Romana, M.S.S; Exconde, T.A.R; Moredo, C.C. 1985. Suitability of fast growing wood 

species and bamboo for the production of dissolving pulp as base of cellulose 

derivatives. Terminal report. 16 leaves Forest Products Research and Development Inst., 

College, Laguna, Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research and 

Development, Los Banos, Laguna. 

Prehydrolysis-sulfate pulping of three-year old bolo (Gigantochloa levis (Blanco) Merr.) and bagras 

(Eucalyptus deglupta Blume) were conducted using varied prehydrolysis and pulping conditions. 

Three, four and five multi-stage bleaching sequences were used in the purification process. Pulp yields 

ranged from 27.98 to 32.72 and from 23.89 to 29.55 (based on the original material) for bolo and 

bagras, respectively. The experimental dissolving pulps from both samples have chemical and physical 

properties comparable to commercial dissolving rayon-grade pulp. 

Bleaching and Beating 

500. Bapna, S; Maheshwari, S; Jivendra; Kulkarni, A.Y. 1981. Colour reversion of bamboo 

pulp bleached with CEH sequence. IPPTA 18(1). 

501. Bhat, R.K; Soundararajan, T.N; Reddy, V.G; Bhargava, R.L. 1972. Bleaching of cold 

caustic soda pulps of Dendrocalamus strictus and mixed hardwoods. IPPTA 9(2): 

94-108. 

The unbleached pulps of the bamboo and hardwoods obtained by cold caustic soda process 

possessed low initial brightness and consequently were hard to bleach. Various bleaching methods 

were tried to study its effects on yields and the efficacy of the methods to improve the brightness of the 

pulps. The results of the methods tried are presented. 

502. Doat, J. 1970. The bleaching of chemical pulps made from tropical woods. Bois. For. 

Trop. 132: 47-68. 

503. Eriksson, K.E; Kirk, T.K. 1985. Bio-pulping, bio-bleaching and treatment of kraft 

bleaching effluents by white rot fungi. In: Robinson, C.W. (Ed.), Comprehensive 

Biotechnology, Volume 4, Chapter 15. Pergamon Press Ltd., Oxford. 

504. Faul, K.K. 1982. Effect of chlorination and pH on final bleached bamboo pulp 

characteristics. Indian Pulp and Paper 36(4). 

505. Gopal, A.V. 1968. Heterogeneity in bleached bamboo pulp. Indian Pulp and Paper 

22(12): 675-678. 

Briefly analyses the two main causes of variation in quality of sulphate pulp made from bamboo in 

India, viz. the age and decay of the bamboo at the time of processing, and the process variables in 

pulping. 

65

506. Grant, J. 1964. Beating characteristics of non-woody pulps. Paper Trade Journal 

148(45). 

507. Guha, S.R.D; Sharma, Y.K; Singh, S.P. 1968. Studies on the effects of pulp blending. 

Indian Pulp 23(2): 157-161. 

Results (tabulated) of an investigation on the blending of pulps of bamboo with Eucalyptus 

grandis, Boswellia serrata and bagasse showed that the strongest pulps were obtained by blending 

after separately pulping and beating the constituents. By this means, the propagation of bamboo (and 

consequently the cost) can be reduced. 

508. Guha, S.R.D; Singh, M.M; Bhola, P.P. 1976. Beating characteristics of bamboo pulp in 

valley beater: Effect of temperature and consistency on power consumption and pulp 

sheet properties. IPPTA 13(1): 54-56. 

Results of the study made on the beating characteristics of bamboo pulp in valley beater are 

presented. Control of the temperature and consistency during the beating process is required to 

develop proper fibre to fibre bonding during the course of sheet formation. It is found that the optimum 

temperature for beating is 35 degree C for bamboo pulp and the optimum consistency is 1.5 degree. 

Power consumption is reported more at higher temperature and less at higher consistencies. 

509. Guha, S.R.D; Singh, M.M; Mithal, K.C. 1966. Production of bleached pulps from mixture 

of bamboo and mixed hardwoods. Indian Pulp and Paper 20(10). 

510. Guha, S.R.D; Singh, M.M; Singh, S.P. 1978. High brightness pulps as filler for the 

production of urea formaldehyde and melamine formaldehyde moulding powder. 


Suitable pulps were prepared from commercially available bamboo pulps (bleached and 

unbleached) and from Eucalyptus hybrid pulp. Details are given of the bleaching processes used. 

511. Islam, S; Bist, V; Chand, S; Pant, R. 1989. Hypochlorite bleaching of bamboo cold-soda 

high yield pulping for newsprint furnishes. Paper presented in the IPPTA Silver Jubilee 

International Seminar & Workshop on Appropriate Technology for Pulp and Paper 

Manufacture in Developing Countries, IPPTA, New Delhi: 12p. 

512. Jain, D.K; Singh, S.V; Guha, S.R.D. 1976. Bleaching of kraft pulp changes in properties 

throughout bleaching sequence CEH. IPPTA Souvenir. 

513. Khanna,P.P; Swaleh, M. 1981. Analysis of bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus) black 

liquor. Indian Pulp and Paper 36(1). 

514. Krishnagopalan, A; Kutscha, N.P; Simar, G.L. 1975. The effect of refining on the 

morphology and properties of bamboo paper. IPPTA 12. 

515. Kumar, A; Singh, S.V; Singh, M.M; Guha, S.R.D. 1974. Kinetics of chlorination stage of 

bleaching bamboo kraft pulp. IPPTA 22(4). 

516. Ledoux, P; Interox, S.A; Agnihotri, V.G. 1981. Peroxide spray bleaching of CEHH 

bleached pulp. IPPTA 18(1). 

517. Maheshwari, S. 1981. Studies on colour reversion of bamboo sulfate pulp. IPPTA 18(1). 

518. Maheshwari, S. 1982. Effect of bamboo bleached pulp viscosity on strength properties. 

IPPTA 14(2). 

66

519. Maheshwari, S; Bapna, S; Jivendra; Kulkarni, A.Y. 1980. Studies on colour reversion of 

bamboo pulps bleached with CEH sequence. Zonal Seminar on High Yielding Pulping 

and Bleaching of Pulps, 20-21 September 1980, Dehra Dun. 

520. Mai-Aung, U. 1961. Bleachable pulp from Burmese bamboo by chlorination process. 

Pulp and Paper Magazine of Canada 62(3): 230-232. 

Reports experiments showing that bleachable pulp could be made by the chlorination process 

from shredded Cephalostachyum pergracile. 

521. Misra, D.K. 1980. Pulping and bleaching of nonwood fibres. In: Casey, J.P (Ed.). Pulp 

and Paper Chemistry and Chemical Technology 3rd Ed. Wiley - Interscience, New York: 

504-568. 

522. Oye, R. 1981. The effect of beating on bamboo pulps -- characterization of bamboo 

dissolving pulp. Proceedings of Bamboo Production and Utilization. XVII IUFRO World 

Congress, 6-17 September 1981, Kyoto, Japan. Wood Research Institute, Kyoto University, 

Japan: 39-44. 

Comparing with wood pulps, bamboo pulp cellulose has some characteristics, one of which is a 

higher mercerization resistance. This could be improved by mechanical treatment or heating of the 

bamboo pulp, though no effect was admited on linter and wood pulps. 

523. Pande, G.C. 1966. Studies on bleaching for dissolving grade pulp from bamboo 

(Dendrocalamus strictus) I. Indian Pulp and Paper: 20: 10-12. 

Describes trials of improves sulphate pulping procedures for preparing dissolving-grade pulp from 

bamboo (in which nearly 25 of the total lignin is held in the lumen and between the primary and 

secondary walls of the fibres). Optimum viscosity was achieved by replacing the chlorination stage by 

CIO, treatment; after further bleaching, a most satisfactory bleached pulp was obtained. 


(Dendrocalamus strictus) II. Indian Pulp and Paper 20: 599, 601-605 & 703-707. 


(Dendrocalamus strictus) III. Indian Pulp and Paper 21(12): 735-741, 749. 

526. Rao, A.R.K; Srinivasan, G; Maheshwari, H.K. 1978. Effect of beating on bamboo fibres. 


Chips of bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus) were pulped by the sulphate process, and the pulp 

was beaten to different degrees. Effects of beating on fibre dimensions and the strength and optical 

properties of the pulp are shown in tables and figures. Morphological changes in the fibres are 

illustrated in photomicrographs. The changes are discussed in relation to the observed critical beating 

value, above which tensile strength and bursting strength declined. 

527. Rao, M.N.R; Harikishore; Pant, R. Bleaching of bamboo cold soda pulp. Central Pulp and 

Paper Research Institute Research Report No. 8312. 

528. Rao, M.N.R; Pant, R; Mathur, R.M; Rao, A.R.K; Fellegi, J. 1980. Improves hypochlorite 

bleaching of bamboo pulp. Paper presented in the Zonal Seminar on High-yield Pulping 

and Bleaching of Pulp. 20-21 September 1980, FRI & Colleges, Dehra Dun, India. 

529. Rao, V.G; Murthy, N.V.S.R; Annam Raju, P.V; Vidyasagar, C.H.V; Sharma, G.S.R.P. 1988. 

Effect of hydrogen peroxide adition in the bleaching of bamboo pulp in CEH and CED 

sequences. IPPTA 25(1): 20-23. 

67

530. Roy, T.K; Bist, V; Pant, R. Bleaching investigations of high-yield pulp from bamboo: 

Influence of chromophoric groups. Centre Pulp and Paper Research Institute. Research 

Report No. 8512. 

531. Singh, M.M; Bhargava, K.S; Gupta, R.K. 1971. Beating evaluation of Bengal Pulp Mill's 

pulps. Proceeding of the Conference on Utilisation of Hardwoods for Pulp and Paper. April 

1971, FRI & Colleges, Dehra Dun, India: 119-121. 

532. Singh, M.M; Bhargava, K.S; Sharma, M.C; Oberoi, M.S. 1968. Pulping and bleaching 

studies on a mixture of bamboo and mixed hardwoods. Indian Pulp and Paper 23(3): 

211-212. 

Results (tabulated) oflaboratory experiments at Dehra Dun on the sulphate pulping of bamboo and 

mixed hardwoods (unspecified) showed that satisfactory high- and lo- brightness pulps and semibleached 

pulps could be obtained from a 50:50 mixture of bamboo and mixed hardwoods. 

533. Singh, M.M; Bhola, P.P; Purkayastha, S.K; Sharma, L. 1976. Effect of beating variables 

on sheet formation of bamboo pulp. IPPTA 14(2): 178-185. 

The effect of beating variables like consistency and temperature on strength development in 

bamboo pulp was studied. Variations in fibre morphology as well as orientation of the fibres in the hand 

sheets were also investigated. No significant difference was found in the strength properties of the 

hand sheets examined, but significant difference in fibre dimensions was observed when the 

temperature was varied. On beating, various cell wall layers of bamboo fibre open up leaving a gap 

between them. This gap not only increases the percentage of void area in the sheet but also does not 

allow the fibres to bind to a compact mass. This appears to be the main handicap of the bamboo fibres. 

534. Singh, M.M; Sharma, Y.K; Bhola, P.P. 1976. Beating characteristics of bamboo pulp in 

banning beaters: Effect of consistency on power consumption and pulp sheet 

properties. IPPTA 13(1): 49-53. 

Bleached bamboo pulp of Central Pulp Mills was beaten in two pilot plant banning beaters, one 

having phosphorbronze tackle and the other having basalt lava stone roll and bed plate. The 

consistency of the stock during beating was kept at 4 percent, 6 percent and 8 percent. The results 

indicate that at higher consistencies, less power is consumed. Stone roll beater consumes less energy 

for the same degree of beating. Breaking length and burst factor are higher when the pulp is beaten 

with phophorbronze tackle and the difference is more pronounced at lower consistency, whereas stone 

roll beater gives a higher tear factor and the difference is more pronounced at higher consistency. 

535. Suman, S; Subhash, M. 1987. Studies on bleaching of bamboo pulp with CHH and CEH 

sequences. IPPTA 24(1): 8-11. 

This paper deals with the comparative investigations of bleaching of bamboo sulfate pulp of 

varying kappa number with CHH and CEHH sequences. It has been observed that bleaching of pulp 

can be done to desired level of brightness with CHH sequence. However total chlorine requirement 

and post colour number are higher while the strength properties are lower of CHH bleached pulp 

compared to CEHH bleached pulp. For CHH bleached pulp of low kappa number these adverse 

effects are not much. As the alkali extraction stage is eliminated the alkali consumption will be lower 

and colour of combined effluent of CHH sequence will be very light compared to CEHH sequence. It 

has been finally concluded that CHH sequence can be followed if we maintain the pulp kappa number 

on lower side i.e. below 25. 

536. Venkobarao, G; Murthy, N.V.S.R; Annam Raju, P.V; Vidyasagar, C.H.V; Sharma, G.S.R.P. 

1988. Effect of hydrogen peroxide addition in the bleaching of bamboo pulp in C.E.H. 

& C.E.D. sequence. IPPTA 25(1): 20-23. 

The results of laboratory trials on the effect of hydrogen peroxide addition in the alkaline extraction 

stage of C.E.H as well as C.E.D bleaching of bamboo pulp, on the final bleached pulp properties are 

presented. The overall advantages by the inclusion of Hydrogen peroxide in the Extraction stage (Ep) 

are also discussed in this paper. 

68

537. Wang, H; Lirn, T.R. 1985. Study on the bleaching of high yield pulp from bamboo 

waste. Forest Products Industries 4(1): 2-11. 

Wastes of Phyllostachys edulis, P. makinoi and Dendrocalamus latiflorus were investigated. 

538. Xie, T.M; Lu, Z.J. 1987. A preliminary study of chlorophenolics in nonwood pulp 

bleaching effluents [incl. reeds, Chinese alpine rush, chlorination, chlorine 

compounds, chlorophenols, hypochlorites]. Nordic Pulp and Paper Research Journal 

2(2): 56-60. 

Storage of Bamboo and Pulp 

539. Bakshi, B.K; Guha, S.R.D; Gupta, S. 1960. Effects of fungal damage to bamboo on the 

yield and quality of pulp. Research and Industries 5(2): 38-39. 

Results of an investigation made to find the effect of fungal damage to the bamboo, Bambusa 

tulda on the yield and quality of pulp are presented. It is reported that decayed bamboo gives lower 

yields. Sheets made from decayed and stained bamboo pulpare found to have lower strength than 

from healthy bamboo pulp. 

540. Bakshi, B.K; Guha, S.R.D; Singh, S; Pant, R.K; Taneja, K. 1968. Decay in flowered 

bamboo and its effect on pulp. Indian Pulp and Paper 22(9): 503-506. 

A recent pulping study of dead and decayed Bambusa arundinacea that had flowered gregariously 

since 1958 around Dandeli, Mysore State, showed that decay, mainly attributable to white rot, resulted 

in loss of wood substances and pulp yield, reduced pulp strength because of holes in the fibres, and 

increased consumption of bleaching chemicals because of the high content of residual lignin in the 

pulp; cost of pulp production was therefore higher than from healthy bamboo. Bamboo attacked by 

brown rot was unsuitable for pulping, but the incidence of brown rot was insignificant. 

541. Beeson, C.F.C. 1941. Ecology and control of forest insects of India and neighbouring 

countries. Vasant Press, Dehra Dun: 773p. 

Opening with a short survey of the history of forest entomology in India and the adjoining 

countries, and with some general notes on the methods of feeding of insects, life cycles and connected 

matters, the bulk of the book is devoted to a systematic record of available information on the ecology 

of insects related to Indian forests. In all 4,300 species are mentioned, `including at least one 

representative of every type of locality-plant-insect combination found in Indian forests and every 

species which has been the subject of an expression of interest by a Forest Officer of the Indian 

Empire'. The information is arranged alphabetically by orders and then families of insects, each 

species being dealt with separately, again in alphabetical sequence. 

542. Chandra, A; Guha, S.R.D. 1979. Studies on the decay of bamboo (Dendrocalamus 

strictus) during outside storage-degradation of cellulose. Indian Forester 105(6): 

444-450. 

Holocellulose and hemicellulose were analysed in untreated and preservative-treated bamboo 

after 4, 8 and 12 months storage. The contents of both declined with duration of storage; the effect of 

the preservatives was slight. After 12 months, the holocellulose content (originally 68 percent) was 59- 

63 percent and the hemicellulose content (originally 51 percent) was 36-39 percent. The degree of 

polymerization of the cellulose in untreated samples decreased over 12 months from 1074 to 948; that 

of the hemicellulose decreased from 1309 to 1105 (1300 to 1259 for PCP - treated samples. 


strictus) during outside storage-effect on Hemicellulose. Journal of Timber 

Development Association 25(3): 10-13. 

In this paper investigations on how the decaying organisms attacked the hemicelluloses of 

bamboo during outside storage and preferentially utilized the constituting monosaccharide for their 

metabolism and growth are reported. 

69


strictus) during outside storage-degradation of lignin. Indian Forester 107(1): 54-59. 

During outside storage the bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus) was attacked by various wood 

destroying microorganisms. Lignin also was degraded gradually due to decay. The degradation was 

caused by white rot type of fungal decay. Fungal decay also chemically changed the lignin 

macromolecule. Chemical analysis of lignin from freshly felled bamboo and stored bamboo showed 

this difference. The decayed lignin was higher in oxygen, lower in hydrogen, methoxyl value and 

carbon contents compared to fresh lignin. 

545. Chen, R.Y; Liu, M.S; Chang, T.C; Tsai, M.J. 1989. Postharvest handling and storage of 

bamboo shoots (Bambusa oldhami Munro). Acta Horticulturae: International symposium 

on postharvest handling of fruits and vegetables, Leuven, Belgium, 29th August and 2nd 

September 1988: No. 258: 309-316. 

Following harvesting, bamboo shoot fibre content increased quickly from the cut end toward the 

tip. Crude fibre content could be reduced by keeping shoots at high humidity, low temperature or both 

during handling. Phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL) andperoxidase activities rapidly increased in 

harvested shoots but no trends were observed for polyphenol oxidase activity. PAL activity was closely 

correlated with increasing crude fibre and lignin content and was partly due to de novo enzyme 

synthesis. 

546. Gardener, J.C.M. 1945. A note on the insect borers of bamboo and their control. Indian 

Forest Bulletin (New Series), Entomology No. 125. FRI, Dehra Dun. 

Certain qualities of the bamboo itself so far as they appear to affect control of borers are 

mentioned. Notes on the insect borers are given with special reference to the Bostrichidae, the most 

important family. The amount of starch in the bamboo, which is intimately connected with liability to 

attack, varies with the season; also starch may under certain conditions decrease to nil in a culm in 

about 3 weeks after felling; in culms felled in hot dry weather starch is high to start with and shows little 

depletion after felling; such culms are liable to heavy attack if not treated against insect attack. Water 

immersion for 3 months prevents Bostrichid attack; the starch content in the immersed culms is not 

apparently altered, only the soluble sugars being removed. A method devised for protection of hollow 

culms (internodal injection) is described. This appears entirely satisfactory for large-scale work. 

Impregnation of hollow culms with aqueous solutions of inorganic salts or creosote by the `Basal 

incision method' is dealt with. Solid culms may be so impregnated if rubber tubes are used to convey 

the preservative (Boucherie). The leaf-suction method worked satisfactorily to draw the solutions of 

inorganic salts to considerable heights but is considered impracticable for large-scale work. Baking 

culms has no deterrent effect against Bostrichidae unless the moisture content is reduced to near 5 per 

cent. and sufficient moisture to support Bostrichid life is not absorbed from the air subsequently. 

Superficial swabbing with creosote and fuel oil (or rape oil) gives temporary protection for about one 

year. Methods of impregnation with preservatives by soaking, open tank and pressure processes are 

briefly discussed. 

547. Guha, S.R.D; Bakshi, B.K; Thapar, H.S. 1958. The effect of the fungus attack on bamboo 

on the preparation and properties of pulp. Journal of the Scientific and Industrial 

Research 17(4): 72-74. 

The decay caused by the white-rot fungi Daedales flavida, Polystictus sanguineus and Lentinus 

praerifdus on Dendrocalamus strictus was studied. All caused some damage, that by D. flavida being 

extensive. Lignin content in the cell-wall was depleted, but since the lignin percentage remained the 

same in damaged and undamaged bamboo it is concluded that the fungi attack other cell-wall 

constituents. Strength properties of pulps from decayed chips were appreciably reduced and this is 

explained by the parforations and corrosion marks in the cell-walls (illustrated by photomicrographs) 

caused by the fungi. 

548. Guha, S.R.D; Chandra, A. 1979. Studies on the decay of bamboo (Dendrocalamus 

strictus) during outside storage-I. Effect of preservatives II. Effect on pulping 

qualities. Indian Forester 105(4): 293-300. 

70

Experiments were conducted at Dehra Dun to study (i) the loss of wood substance in bamboo 

during outside storage (ii) the effect of various wood destroying microorganisms on the chemical 

constituents of bamboo (iii) the efficacy of three preservatives compositions in resting the fungal decay 

and to evaluate the effect of decay on the pulp qualities of bamboo after different storage period with 

and without chemical treatments and its results are presented. It is reported that the preservative 

treatments reduced wood substance loss by 28-30 percent and pulp yield loss by about 30 percent. 

549. Kirkpatrick, T.W; Simmonds, N.W. 1958. Bamboo borers and the moon. Tropical 

Agriculture, Trinidad 35(4): 299-301. 

Internodes, taken from the top, middle and bottom of mature (5- to 10-year) and immature culms 

of Bambusa vulgaris, felled, some during the waxing, others during the waning of the moon, were 

placed in a greenhouse with pieces heavily infested with Dinoderus minutus. Tables show infestation 

in number of holes per 100 sq.in. of surface after 63 and 97 days. Popular local rhyming statements 

that (a) `Bamboo cut with moon on wane will ensure financial gain', (b) `But beetles bore it very soon, if 

cut upon the waxing moon', and (c) `Moreover it's a well-known fact that ripe bamboo is less attacked' 

are disproved by the data, which show a non-significant advantage for (b) and a highly significant (P 

555. Kumar, S; Singh, M.M; Guha, S.R.D. 1980. Protection of pulpwood in outside storage - A 

case for using chemicals for prophylactic treatments. Journal of the Timber 

Development Association of India 26(2): 30-42. 

A review of the laboratory work done on storage losses with different wood species including 

bamboo and the adverse effect of inadequate protection on strength of paper sheets, bleach 

consumption and brightness and loss in digester capacity utilisation. Possible saving by using effective 

chemicals on some of these counts have also been qualitatively and quantitatively enumerated. 

556. Maheshwari, S; Maheswari, O.N; Bajaj, V.D. 1988. Efficient management of bamboo 

storage to reduce cost of paper production. IPPTA 25(2): 1-7. 

The paper deals with a few aspects of efficient management of storage of bamboo. The emphasis 

has been made to have optimum inventory of bamboo at different places of storage. Proper selection 

of site for storage, layout of stacks in the yard in compliance to the insurance rules and easy approach 

for transport system, stacks design, etc are to be given due consideration to reduce cost of loading and 

unloading, prevention from fire hazards, preservation of raw material and overall reduction in cost of 

raw material. The paper also discusses in detail the biological infestations due to prolonged storage. 

Details regarding types of infestations and remedial measures to check the same are also described. A 

brief account of the experiments conducted to evaluate the efficacy of prophylactic treatment to check 

degradation of bamboo and its effect on papermaking characterestic given along with the mill 

experience. It is concluded that adoption of scientific forest management practices, systematic storage, 

optimum inventory and preservative treatment would be helpful in checking loss of woody substance at 

various stages of operation, which would ultimately give better pulp and paper quality with improved 

productivity. 

557. Mai-Aung, U; Htway, D.K; Kyaw, Z.U. 1969. Pulps from stored bamboo. Union of Burma 

Journal of Science and Technology 2(2): 345-354. 

When Bambusa polymorpha and Cephalostachyum pergracile were stored in Burma for 12 

months in piles in the open or submerged in a natural pond, deterioration through stain and rot fungi 

and beetle attack were severe in the open but negligible in water. Losses of specific gravity were 

respectively 16.7 and 6.13% B. polymorpha and 6.52 and 1.61% in C. pergracile. Neither duration nor 

method of storage had a great effect on chemical composition and sulphate pulp yields, but some 

strength properties of the pulp decreased about equally in both methods during storage. Brightness 

and response to bleaching was better in pulp from water-stored Bamboo; this was also confirmed in a 

limited bleaching trial on mechanical pulp from B. polymorpha. 

558. Mathew, G; Nair, K.S.S. 1990. Storage pests of bamboo in Kerala. In: Rao, I.V.R, 

Gnanaharan, R and Sastry, C.B (Eds.). Bamboos Current Research: Proceedings of the 

International Workshop, Cochin 1989. KFRI, Peechi and IDRC, Canada: 212-214. 

About 12 spp. of insects, mostly beetles, were recorded causing damage to stored reeds and 

bamboos in Kerala, including an unidentified subterranean termite and 2 spp. of beetles, Dinoderus 

minutus and D. ocellaris (Bostrichidae), which were the most serious borers. Observations on the 

seasonal incidence, general characteristics as well as the nature of attack caused by these beetles are 

given. 

559. Murphy, R.J; Alvin, K.L; Tan, Y.F. 1991. Development of soft rot decay in the bamboo 

Sinobambusa tootsik. IAWA Bulletin 12(1): 85-94. 

The development of decay cavities caused by growth of the soft rot fungus Chaetomium globosum 

in the fibre cell walls of Sinobambusa tootsik was studied in 1- and 3-year-old culms. Soft rot attack 

was found only in the cell walls of fibres; parenchya and vessel elements remained unattacked. The 

extent of soft rot and cavity morphology were influenced by the position of the fibre bundles in the culm 

wall, culm age and the degree of lignification of individual fibres. Decay was greatest in the walls of 

those fibres which matured late in the course of culm development and in which the wall contained 

zones of low lignin content. It was least in the early maturing, uniformly lignified fibres and in very 

immature, thin-walled fibres. The results are discussed in relation to developmental anatomy and the 

reported ultrastructure of bamboo fibre walls. 

72

560. Nair, K.S.S; Mathew, G; Varma, R.V; Gnanaharan, R. 1983. Preliminary investigations on 

the biology and control of beetles damaging stored reed. KFRI Research Report No. 19. 

Kerala Forest Research Institute, Kerala, India: 35p. 

The damage potential of Dinoderus beetles stored bamboo, reed Ochlandra travancorica, one of 

the fibrous raw materials for paper pulps and possible methods of their control were investigated. The 

study included a general survey of insect damage of stored reed in Kerala, development of methods for 

rearing dinoderus in the laboratory, experimental investigations on factors influencing succeptibility of 

reed to Dinoderus and evaluation of several chemicals under laboratory as well as field conditions for 

control of the borers. 

561. Purushotham, A. 1970. Protection of pulpwood (timber, bamboo) from deterioration 

due to biological agencies (fungi and insects, etc.) during transit and storage. Journal 

of the Timber Development Association 16(2): 50-53. 

Author suggests measures for protection of bamboo against insects and fungus attack at felling 

and stacking site. Methods of prophylactic treatments are described. 

562. Sadawarte, N.S; Prasad, A.K. 1978. Indian experience in collecting, handling, storing, 

preservation, and preparing bamboo for pulping. USA, Technical Association of the Pulp 

and Paper Industry, Nonwood Plant Fiber Committee. Nonwood plant fiber pulping. Progress 

report No. 9: 3-9 TAPPI, Atlanta, Georgia, USA. 

Bamboo accounts for over 60 of the raw material used in the Indian pulp and paper industry. 

Research done at Central Pulp Mills in India is briefly described on removing silica from bamboo prior 

to pulping and on utilizing bamboo dust as fuel and in pulping. 

563. Sai Ram, M; Seenayya, G. 1991. Production of ethanol from straw and bamboo pulp by 

primary isolates of Clostridium thermocellum. World Journal of Microbiology and 

Biotechnology 7(3): 372-378. 

Two strains of Clostridium thermocellum have been isolated and these strains are found displaying 

higher ethanol tolerance and can grow and degrade cellulose in the presence of 1.5 percent ethanol. 

The abilities of these isolates to degrade native and pretreated agricultural material such as rice straw, 

bamboo pulp (Bambusa sp.) and stems of Lantana and Parthenium weeds are reported. The effect of 

reducing sugars and ethanol on the cellulose fermentations is also reported. 

564. Satish Kumar; Kalra, K.K; Dobriyal, P.B. 1985. Protection of pulp-bamboo in outside 

storage. Journal of the Timber Development Association 31(4): 5-12. 

Field trials on protection of flowered, semi dry, dried and green bamboos were carried out at Sirpur 

Paper Mills, Kagazagar, Andhra Pradesh Paper Mills, Rajahmundhary and Bengal Paper Mills, 

Raniganj. At the three mill sites, variable losses in raw material were noticed. Real losses were, 

however, more than the apparent losses as the former were camouflaged due to loss in wood content. 

Prophylactic treatment with mixture of sodium-pentachlorophenate-boric acid-borax affected a saving 

of nearly 60 percent, in terms of pulp yield, in green material over a storage period of one year. Single 

treatment at the time of making a stack has a limited scope as the chemicals are leachable. However, 

the savings affected make the treatment economically viable. 

565. Satish Kumar; Dobriyal, P.B. 1990. Management of biodegradation of timber logs and 

bamboos during storage: A review for Indian conditions. Journal of the Timber 

Development Association of India 36(3): 5-14. 

Studies on the effect of storage of pulp wood revealed that untreated material attacked by borer 

and fungi while the treated material degraded less. The degree and type of attack depend on the 

climatic conditions and the moisture content of the wood. Borer and fungus attack influence the pulp 

yield and cause appreciable decrease in strength properties of paper. It is reported that prophylactic 

treatment of bamboos with effective chemicals can affect considerable savings in wood raw materials. 

The best treatment was found to be with 2.5 per cent solution of Boric acid, Borax and Sodium 

pentachlorophenate (1:1:05). Laboratory screening tests on fungicides/insecticides revealed several 

formulations to be tried for field application. 

73

566. Singh, M.M. 1977. Summary of FRI investigation on affects of storage on paper making 

raw materials. IPPTA Zonal Seminar on Afforestation, Exploitation and Preservation of 

Forest Raw Materials, 1977, Dehra Dun. 

567. Sulaiman, O; Murphy, R.J. 1992. The development of soft rot decay in bamboo fibres. 

Twentythird Annual Meeting - International Research Group on Wood Preservation, 

Harrogate, United Kingdom, 10-15 May 1992: 17p. 

568. Sulaiman, O; Murphy, R.J. 1995. Ultrastructure of soft rot decay in bamboo cell walls. 

Material und Organismen 29(4): 241-253. 

The penetration of soft rot (Chaetomium globosum) hyphae and cavity formation was greatly 

influenced by the microfibrillar orientation of bamboo (Phyllostachys viridi-glaucescens) cell walls. 

Penetration hyphae normally changed direction when they encountered a different microfibrillar 

orientation of the cell wall, particularly associated with a narrow lamella. The microfibrillar structure of 

the bamboo cell walls led to the development of 3 types of soft rot branching:typical 'T' branching, 

'tangentially' orientated branching and 'radially' orientated branching. Penetrating hyphae that grew 

tangentially followed the microfibrillar angle of the narrow lamellae and the cavity was confined to just 

outside the transitional region between the broad and narrow lamellae. Radially orientated hyphae 

normally traversed across the cell wall either via pits or by direct penetration. Soft rot hyphae were able 

to exert a strong mechanical force to penetrate through the cell wall. Considerable distortion of the 

microfibrillar structure of fibre and parenchyma cell walls was commonly observed resulting from 

penetration hypha and during hyphal enlargement accompanying penetration. Lignin played an 

important part in decay produced by soft rot fungi. High lignin content was demonstrated to act as a 

barrier for the development of soft rot as shown in the decay resistance of the compound middle 

lamella. 

74

Abdul Latif Mohamod 161,294,324,331,458 

Abdullah, N 322 

Adkoli, N.S 131,132 

Aggarwal, R.K 22 

Agnihotri, V.G 516 

Agshikar, B.M 364 

Ahmad, N 265 

Aibara, S 245 

Akhtaruzzaman, A.F.M 274,376,380,447,448,449, 

450,451,472 

Alam, M.R 365,443 

Alvin, K.L 325,339,340,341,559 

American Paper and Pulp 

Association 23 

Anchalee Kamolratanakul 10 

Annam Raju, P.V 469,529,536 

Aranyaputi, S 63 

Arruda, M.C.Q. de 266,267 

Ashong, F.W.A 46 

Association 23 

Atchison, J.E 24 

Azuma, J 245 

Azzini, A 133,142,260,266,267,366,367,368 

Bahadur, O 144 

Bajaj, V.D 556 

Bajpai, P 444 

Bakshi, B.K 539,540,547 

Balasubramanian, A 258 

Bang, D.S 467 

Banthia, K.M 369,370,371,372 

Banthia, U.S 415 

Bapna, S 500,519 

Barrichello, L.E.G 327,373,374 

Barua, I.B 365,443 

Bawagan, P.V 59,268 

Beeson, C.F.C 541 

Beinhoff, O 282 

Belvin, W.L 25 

Beri, R.M 135 

Bhandari, K.S 445 

Bhandari, S.S 193,318 

Bharathi, S 236 

Bharatia, D.K 375 

Bhargava, G.G 217,470,494 

Bhargava, K.S 256,486,487,531,532 

Bhargava, M.P 26,136,137,446 

Bhargava, R.L 227,501 

Bhat, A.S 86 

Bhat, R.K 501 

Bhat, R.V 1,27,269,270,271,272,273,435,436, 

475,488 

Bhola, P.P 41,218,316,353,354,384,420,483,493, 

508,533,534 

Author Index 

75 

Bhowmick, K 274,376,447,448,449,450 

Bist, D.P.S 275,276 

Bist, V 511,530 

Biswas, B 28,410 

Biyani, B.P 377,378 

Bolker, H.I 379 

Bose, J.L 293 

Bose, S.K 380,451 

Bourdillon, T.F 138 

Bridgwater, A.V 67 

Browning B.L 381 

Bunchu Pakotiprapha 29 

Cai Mingde 2 

Cao, D.Y 213 

Carrasco, F 67 

Carrasco, N 30 

Casin, R.F 238 

CCF, Madhya Pradesh 3 

Chacko, V.J 117 

Chaliha, P.B 411,412 

Chand, S 511 

Chandra, A 542,543,544 

Chandra, R 31,548 

Chandrasekharan, C 476 

Chang, F.J 139,382 

Chang, T.C 545 

Chao, S.C 360,452 

Chapman, G.P 250,341 

Chary, K.N 348 

Chattar Singh 26,137,446 

Chatterji, R.N 223 

Chaudhari, R.R 87 

Chen, H.L 130 

Chen, J.X 453 

Chen, J.Y 242 

Chen, R.Y 545 

Chen, S.C 361,383 

Chen, W.L 140 

Chen, Y.D 243 

Chiang, P.Y 249 

Chiou, C.H 334,489 

Chiu, C.H 334 

Chowdhary, A.R 233,352,380,451 

Chowdhury, K.A 435,436 

Chu, W.F 326 

Ciaramello, D 141,142,181,266,267,368 

Clark, T.F 32,418 

Colodette, J.L 454 

Conde, A.R 253 

Correa de A 143 

CSIR, India 88,89 

Cunningham, R.L 32 

Das, P 233

Das, S.C 233 

Deb, D.B 90 

Deb, U.K 236 

Desai, B.P 91,92 

Deshmukh, D.K 93 

Despande, P.R 143a 

Dev, I 554 

Devgan, R.C 425 

Devi, N 384 

Dhawan, R 78,278,385 

Dhondiyal, S.N 144,392 

Doat, J 279,502 

Dobriyal, P.B 145,551,552,553,554, 

564,565 

Dong, J.W 251 

Donofrio, C.P 162 

Du, H.T 386 

Dubey, R.K 490 

Duh, M.H 139 

Dwivedi, R.P 217,490 

Eberhardt, L 362 

Ekwebelam, S.A 33 

El Bassam, N 146 

Eriksson, K.E 503 

Escolano, J.O 59,147,387,390,471 

Espiloy, Z.B 238,280 

Exconde, T.A.R 499 

Faix, O 281,282,283 

Fan, X.F 251 

FAO 34 

Farkas, J 389,403 

Faul, K.K 504 

Fazanaro, R 327 

Felix, G.T 387 

Fellegi, J 4,528 

Fengel, D 35,244,284 

Fleury, J.E 177 

Foelkel, C.E.B 327,373,374 

FPRDI 148 

Fraipont, L 200,431 

Francis, K 119,350,351 

Frazao, F.J.L 143 

Frison, E 149 

Fu, M.Y 242 

Fujii, Y 245 

Fujita, M 320 

Fukuyama, G 150,388 

Gabir, S 105 

Gajdos, J 389,403 

Gamble, J.S 94 

Gantayet, R.G 256 

Garceau, J.J 67 

Gardener, J.C.M 546 

Garg, R.K 151 

George, M 119 

Ghosh, D 236 

76 

Ghosh, P.C 404 

Ghosh, P.K 5 

Ghosh, S.R 491 

Ghosh, S.S 246 

Giri, S.S 247 

Gnanaharan, R 560 

Goel, S 5 

Gohain, P.D 412 

Gomide, J.L 248,253,454,474 

Gondim, T.R.M.A 367 

Gong, J.P 243 

Gonzalez, T 390 

Gonzalez Vila, F.J 305 

Gopal, A.V 505 

Gopichand, K 413 

Gorbatsovisch, S.N 378 

Goring, D.A.I 461 

Goswami, N.C 472 

Goswami, T 36 

Goyal, P 5,455,492 

Goyel, R 5 

Grant, J 37,506 

Gremler, E.R 391 

Grosser, D 336 

Gu, X.P 95 

Guang-zhi, Z 215 

Guha, S.R.D 6,27,38,39,40,41,42,96, 

152,153,154,155,156,194,269,270,271,275, 

276,285,295,307,311,313,384,392,393,394, 

395,396,397,398,416,420,429,430,457,457a, 

493,507,508,509,510,512,515,539,540,542, 

543,544,547,548 

Gulati, A.S 457a 

Gupta, N.K 477 

Gupta, R.K 531 

Gupta, S 539 

Gupta, T 7 

Gupte, V.M 13 

Han, H 286 

Handigol, M.P.H 465,466 

Hanzawa, M 440 

Harikishore 527 

Harris, J.F 43 

Hasan, S.M 97 

Hasegava, T 287 

Hayes, M.H.B 209 

Hegde, N.G 98 

Heremans, R 159 

Higaki, M 319 

Higuchi, T 72,288,289,290,291,299,308 

Hirknnawar, S 5 

Hodge, W.H 99 

Hontoy, J 219 

Horio, M 477a 

Htway, D.K 496,557 

Hu, A.Q 329

Hu, C.Z 328 

Huang Jingsheng 568 

Huang, L.Y 329 

Huang, S.K 222 

Huang, Y.C 129 

Hukuhara, S 201 

Hunter, I.R 157 

Hwang, J.S 249 

Hwang, S.G 222 

ICFRE 100 

Idei, T 292,321 

Iijima, T 319 

Imagawa, H 239,298 

Imai, M 202 

INBAR 158 

Ingle, T.R 293 

Interox, S.A 516 

Islam, M.A 407 

Islam, N 443 

Islam, S 511 

Isono, Z 399,400,401,402,432 

Istas, J.R 44,159,160,219,220 

Ito, M 287 

Jadhav, A.G 393,397 

Jain, D.K 512 

Jain, K.D 313,317 

Jain, R.C 397 

Jain, S.C 477 

Jakab, E 281 

Jakob, K 146 

Jalil, A.A 161,324,330,331,458 

Jamaludin, K 161,294,324,330,331,458 

Janci, J 389,403 

Janmejay, L.S 247 

Jaspal, N.S 171,227,272,465,466,498 

Jauhari, M.B 404 

Jena, S.C 406 

Jha, Y.P 101 

Jivendra 500,519 

Joedodibroto, R 45 

Joglekar, M.H 162 

Johansson, G 314 

Joshi, H.C 428 

Joshi, R.C 415,494 

Jung, T.M 259 

Jurasck, L 493a 

Kadambi, K 46 

Kadarisman, D 405 

Kaitpraneet, W 102 

Kala, R.P 221 

Kalra, K.K 553,564 

Kandelaki, T.E 103 

Kang, T.Y 222 

Kang, Z.Y 222 

Kapoor, S.K 236,295 

Kar, S.K 406 

77 

Karim, M.S 407 

Karira, B.G 42,78 

Karira, K.K 78 

Karnik, M.G 104,135,265,296,297,477b,478, 

479,480,480a,488 

Kashihara, M 82 

Kato, F 408,409 

Kato, H 47 

Kato, N 319 

Kato, Y 201 

Kaul, S.S 490 

Kawai, S 81,82 

Kawamura, I 289 

Kawase, K 150,239,298,388 

Kedharnath, S 223 

Khalid ul Islam, M 407 

Khan, A.B 365 

Khan, M.A.W 117 

Khanduri, S.C 410 

Khanna, P.P 513 

Khare, A 494 

Khoo, K.C 324,331 

Khristov, T 105 

Khristova, P 105 

Kiang, T 163,363 

Kirk, T.K 503 

Kirkpatrick, T.W 549 

Kitamura, H 164,332 

Kitamura, T 72 

Kitpraneet, W 102 

Kocholia, R.S 5 

Kokta, B.V 67 

Kolambe, S.L 462 

Koorse, G.M 459,460 

Koshijima, T 301,302 

Kothari, M.B 56 

Kothari, R.M 151 

Kozukue, E 550 

Kozukue, N 550 

Kraebel, C.J 363 

Krishnagopalan, A 333,514 

Krishnamachari, K.S 48 

Ku, Y.C 165,166,167,224,334 

Kuang, S.J 461 

Kulkarni, A.G 236,462 

Kulkarni, A.Y 49,500,519 

Kumar, A 515 

Kumar, K 39 

Kumar, M 118 

Kumar, P.P 229 

Kumar, S 551,552,553,554,555 

Kuo, L.S 382 

Kuroda, H 299 

Kutscha, N.P 514 

Kyaw, Z.U 496,557 

Labarre, E.J 50

Lakshmana, A.C 106 

Lakshmi Sharma 354 

Lal, K 353 

Lan, X.G 328 

Lange, W 282 

Ledoux, P 516 

Lee, S.L 230 

Lele, P.S 480b 

Li Yuanzhong 168 

Li, Q 335 

Li, R.G 242 

Li, X.L 243 

Liang, W.Y 95,129 

Libby, C.E 7a 

Liese, W 250,254,255,336,344 

Likit Harnjangsit 10 

Lin, J.G 251 

Lin, J.H 212 

Lin, S.C 361,383 

Lin, S.D 251 

Lin, S.J 361,383 

Lin, W.C 163 

Lin, Y.F 95,129 

Liou, J.L 264 

Lirn, T.R 438,537 

Liu, M.S 545 

Lopez, F.R 238 

Lorey, F.W 378 

Lu, Z.J 538 

Lunde, H 362a 

Luo, C.C 463 

Luo, L.F 212 

Luz, C.N.R 143 

Ma Naxiun 169,286 

Ma, L.F 286,337 

Ma, N.X 213 

Madan, R.N 78,252,263 

Madhav Gadgil 107 

Maekawa, E 300,301,302 

Mahanta, D 303,411,412 

Maheshwari, D.K 487 

Maheshwari, H.K 526 

Maheshwari, S 51,170,171,172,173,174,175,176, 

225,226,227,228,304,406,413,464,495,500, 

517,518,519,556 

Maheswari, O.N 556 

Mai-Aung, U 177,496,520,557 

Mall, I.D 52 

Manfredi, V 327 

Mantri, T.C 236 

Marchessault, R.H 245 

Martin, F 305 

Martin, M 107a 

78 

Mathew, G 558,560 

Mathur, C.M 40 

Mathur, G.M 144,317,392,457 

Mathur, R.M 462,528 

Matsui, Z 178 

Matsumoto, A 473 

Mazzei, F.M 179 

McCormac, C.W 108 

McGorovern, J.N 180,391,414 

Medina, J.C 181 

Meier, D 283 

Merck, A.G.E 53 

Meshramkar, P.M 171 

Mian, A.J 274,376, 447,448,449,450 

Mishra, B.P 415 

Mishra, N.D 54,55,56,57,229,369,369a,370,371, 

372,456,492 

Misra, D.K 521 

Mithal, K.C 398,509 

Mizuno, T 421,422,423 

Mohan, S.M 470 

Mohanty, A.P 109 

Monsalud, M.R 8,58,59,338,471 

Montalvao Filho, A 253 

Monteiro, R.F.R 306 

Mooney, H.F 110 

Morak, A.J 297 

Moredo, C.C. 499 

Morin, F.G 245 

Mottet, A 200,431 

Moulik, S 111 

Mukherjea, V.N 79,182,307,416 

Murakami, K 208,356,357 

Murphy, R.J 325,339,340,341,559,567,568 

Murthy, K.S 236 

Murthy, N.V.S.R 469,529,536 

Nafziger, T.R 417 

Nagai, V 368 

Nagaiah, K 229 

Nagamori, N 441 

Nagashima, T 164 

Nair, K.S 112 

Nair, K.S.S 558,560 

Nair, P.N 9 

Nair, V.K.S 42,60 

Naiyana Niyomwan 10 

Nakatsubo, F 291,308 

Nanko, H 357 

Narendra Prasad, S 107 

Navarro, J.R 419 

Nazak, R.G 465,466 

Negi, J.S 309,310,394 

Negi, S.S 246 

Nelson, G.H 61 

Nepenin, N 467 

Nerurkar, D.L 5

Ni, M.A 243 

Nicholas, P.M 419 

Nicholas, P.O 387 

Nicholson, J.W 113 

Nirankari Devi 420 

Nomura, T 183,342 

Oberoi, M.S 532 

Ohrnberger, D 114 

Okamura, K 245 

Oliveira R.C. de 454 

Om Bahadur 457 

Ono, K 12,184,399,400,401,402,432,433 

Ota, M 343 

Oye, R 421,422,423,522 

Pakotiprapha, B 230 

Pama, R.P 230 

Pan, T.T 224,360,452 

Pande, G.C 62,523,524,525 

Pande, S.P 271 

Pandit, S.V 13 

Pant, P.C 285,395,396 

Pant, R 6,311,427,462,511,527,528,530 

Pant, R.K 540 

Paquot, M 200,431 

Parameswaran, N 254,344 

Parekh, M.C 229 

Parkhe, P.M 49 

Pasaribu, R.A 497 

Patel, M 345,349 

Patnaik, J.K 256 

Pattanath, P.G 346 

Pearson, R.S 186,187,188 

Perdue, R.E 363 

Pesantes Rebaza, M.A 115 

Pharasi, S.C 135 

Podder, V 14,15 

Prasad, A.K 562 

Prasad, J 116 

Pravin, G 468 

Premrasmi, T 63 

Preston, R.D 347 

Pulp and Paper Canada 16 

Puntambekar, P.P 13 

Purkayastha, S.K 353,354,533,534 

Purushotham, A 561 

Qiu, F.G 64 

Quin, W.L 243 

Raekaelboom, E.L 159,160,220 

Raghuveer, S 73 

Rai, A.K 237 

Rai, P.A 498 

Raitt, W 65,231,232,424 

Rajan, T.N.S 5 

Rajulu, A.V 348 

Ramanathan, T 66 

Ramaswami, V 66 

79 

Ramsarma, B.V 481 

Rangan, S.G 48 

Rao, A.R.K 4,526,528 

Rao, A.V 57,369a,370,371,372 

Rao, B.Y 364 

Rao, G.M 369a,370,371,372 

Rao, M.N.R 527,528 

Rao, M.S 364 

Rao, P.J.M 17,256 

Rao, V.G 469,529 

Ravindranathan, N 48 

Rawat Rajesh 470 

Ray, A.K 67 

Razzaque, M.A 68,233 

Reddy, D.V 48 

Reddy, G.R 148 

Reddy, V.G 501 

Rediko, B.V.P 179 

Rehman, A 412 

Revol, J.F 461 

Rita Dhawan 312 

Rodriguez, S.K 69 

Romana, M.S.S 499 

Roy, T.K 236,530 

Rydholm, S.A 70,71 

Sabharwal, H.S 313 

Saboo, R.N 482 

Sadawarte, N.S 562 

Sagreiya, K.P 117 

Sahu, A.K 349 

Sahunalu, P 102 

Sai Ram, M 563 

Saiki, H 320 

Saikia, C.N 36,491 

Saini, B.K 318 

Saiz Jimenez, C 305 

Sakamoto, I 164 

Sakata, I 441 

Saksena, U.L 5 

Salgado A.L. de B 266,267 

Salvador 30 

Samapuddhi, K 257 

Sanyal, A.K 425 

Sasaki, H 81,82 

Satish Kumar 145,564,565 

Sato, A 72,290 

Sato, K 298 

Satonaka, S 388,440 

Satpathy, K.C 172,173,174,175,176,228 

Satyanarayana, G 73 

Sayeed, M 233 

Schallinger, K.M 209 

Schowing, A.G 314 

Schwenzon, K 74,75 

Seabra, L-de 189 

Seenayya, G 563

Seethalakshmi, K.K 118 

Sekhar, T 258 

Sekyere, D 234 

Semana, J.A 147,238,426,471 

Sen, D.L 480 

Seth, V.K 18,19 

Shah, M.A 472 

Shah, N 7 

Shanmughavel, P 119,190,235,350,351 

Shao, X 244,284 

Shao-nan, C 215 

Sharma, G.D 470 

Sharma, G.S.R.P 469,529,536 

Sharma, L 533 

Sharma, M.C 487,532 

Sharma, R.K 151 

Sharma, Y.K 38,39,40,393,397,427,457a,507,534 

Sharma, Y.M.L 120,121 

Sheikh, M.A 191 

Sheng, H.J 264 

Shi, Q.T 129 

Shimada, M 299,315 

Shin, D.S 259 

Shukla, K.S 554 

Siddique, A.B 68,352 

Sieber, R 19a 

Silitonga, T 405,497 

Simar, G.L 514 

Simionescu, C 482a,482b,482c 

Simmonds, N.W 549 

Sindall, R.W 192 

Singh, A.R 52 

Singh, K 347 

Singh, M.M 41,42,76,77,78,79,275,276,311,313, 

316,317,353,354,379,384,398,415,420,427, 

457a,483,490,493,494,508,509,510,515,531, 

532,533,534,555,566 

Singh, S 122,353,540 

Singh, S.P 193,237,318,428,507,510 

Singh, S.V 193,194,236,237,275,276,278,312, 

318,429,430,512,515 

Skoupy, J 97 

Soundararajan, T.N 501 

Sproull, R.C 472a 

Srinivasan, G 526 

Stevens, R.H 80 

Stracey, P.D 195 

Subhash, M 535 

Subramanian, K 92 

Sude, Y 236 

Sugiharto, A 45 

Sulaiman, O 567,568 

Suleiman, K.M 196 

Suman, S 535 

Sumg, Y.H 20 

Surendran, P.N 123 

80 

Susuki, S 197 

Suzuki, H 484 

Swaleh, M 513 

Szekely, T 281 

Takei, T 319 

Takhama, M 477a 

Tamolang, F.N 8,238,355 

Tan, Y.F 559 

Tanahashi, M 290,291,308 

Tandon, R.C 551 

Taneja, K 540 

Tang, Y.Y 21 

Tewari, D.N 124 

Thaiutsa, B 102 

Thapar, H.S 547 

Thonart, P 200,431 

Tian, X.P 212 

Tian-jian, H 215 

Till, F 281 

Tipre, D.S 551 

Tissot, M 198 

Tomazello Filho, M 260,266,267 

Tono, T 261 

Torres, M 69 

Trivedi, R 345 

Tsai, L.H 489 

Tsai, M.J 545 

Tshiamala, T 199,200,431 

Tsuchida, H 550 

Tsuji, H 432,433 

Tutiya, M 201,202 

Ujiie, M 239,298,473 

Ukil, T 203 

Upadhya, Y.D 52 

Upadyay, S.N 52 

Uppin, S.F 125 

Uriate, M.T 206 

Uriate, N.S 206 

Vaclav, E 97 

Vaikuntam, K 73 

Varma, R.V 560 

Varshney, M.C 262 

Veeramani, H 375,459,460 

Venkatappa Setty, K.R 126 

Venkobarao, G 536 

Vidyasagar, C.H.V 529,536 

Vijan, A.R 252,263 

Vilar, R 248 

Villavicencio, E.J 204 

Vincent, H 205 

Viramani, K.C 27,273,475 

Virtucio, F.D 206 

Vivone, R.R 248,474 

Vroom, K 434 

Vyas, G.M 435,436 

Waheed khan, M.A 127,128,207

Wai, N.N 208,356,357 

Wang Guorong 2 

Wang Songxue 2 

Wang, H 437,438,537 

Wang, K.T 439 

Wang, Y.F 463 

Wang, Y.J 167 

Wang, Z.W 485 

Ward, K 297 

Wegner, G 35 

Weiner, G 250 

Wilson, J 209 

Witkoski, C.J 210 

Wolff, I.A 418 

Wu, H.Y 212 

Wu, S.C 264 

Wu, Z.H 240 

Xia, N.H 241 

Xia, Y.F 358 

Xiang, Y.M 323 

Xiao, J.H 95,130 

Xie, J.H 242 

Xie, T.M 538 

Xu, Q.F 240 

Yamada, T 342 

Yamagishi, K 440 

Yamaguchi, H 441 

Yamawaki, T 82 

Yang, L.P 328 

Yang, X.S 129 

Yao, G.Y 442 

81 

Yao, H.S 326 

Ye, K.L 211 

Yi, C.Q 213 

Yoshida, Y 82 

Yoshinaga, A 320 

Yoshizawa, N 321 

Yu, J.L 453 

Yuan, Y.P 130 

Zafar, S.I 322 

Zamuco, G.I.T 359 

Zeng, J 358 

Zeng, M.C 323 

Zhan, H.Y 453 

Zhang, A.L 242 

Zhang, C 95 

Zhang, H.M 213 

Zhang, J.W 286 

Zhang, M 81,82 

Zhang, Q.S 212 

Zhang, W.Y 213 

Zhang, X 214 

Zheng Qingyan 168 

Zhen-xing, S 215 

Zhou, D.S 213 

Zhou, J.Y 328 

Zhu, L.F 329 

Zhu, L.Q 337 

Zhu, W.S 130 

Zou, Z.X 442 

Zu, Z.W 286

ISSN ………… - International Network for Bamboo and Rattan

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