Professional Documents
Culture Documents
www.rhs.org.uk
Entries
There were 134 entries in the Trial, submitted by nurseries in the UK and Holland, National Collection Holders and individuals (listed on page 11). The great majority of entries in Stage 2 were cultivars, hybrids or variants of G. oxonianum, G. sanguineum and G. psilostemon. Representatives of G. endressii, G. versicolor, G. albanum, G. tuberosum, G. malviorum, G. macrostylum, G. libani and G. peloponnesiacum were also assessed.
Cultivation of Stage 2
The large number of entries in this trial and the space required by some of the plants meant that the plants had to be split over two beds. The larger bed (Site 1) contained G. oxonianum, G. psilostemon, G. endressii and G. versicolor cultivars, the smaller (Site 2) G. sanguineum cultivars and other entries. The soil at both sites was sandy and slightly alkaline but high in nutrients. No fertiliser was added to either site. G. Anne Thomson and G. Ann Folkard were staked with birch twigs to support their scrambling habit. Two plants of each of the G. endressii and G. oxonianum entries, numbers 166, were cut to the ground during July 2004 and watered, leaving one plant of each for purposes of comparison and record-taking.
Objectives
To recommend the Award of Garden Merit to those plants considered the best for garden decoration. To demonstrate the range and use as garden plants. To compare new with old cultivars. To assess for border decoration and ground cover. To ascertain which require staking. To produce a permanent record through herbarium specimens, photographs and written descriptions for the RHS Herbarium at Wisley. To determine correct nomenclature.
Records
Flowering period start and end of owering Height and spread Staking required or not Habit groundcover, spreading, mound-forming, scrambling Evergreen retention of foliage over winter Hardiness
Front cover: G. Anne Thomson (Photo Jacquie Gray) Opposite: G. Stephanie (Photo Wendy Wesley) Right: Hardy Geraniums Trials Open Day 2005 (Photo Wendy Wesley)
Judging
The trial was assessed for the Award of Garden Merit by the Floral Trials Subcommittee using the following criteria: habit vigour (health) oriferousness length of owering period foliage
Geranium names
Hybridity in Geranium and the use of botanical epithets
One of the reasons that hardy geraniums make such excellent garden plants is their propensity to hybridise. In the wild species of Geranium are usually prevented from crossing by geographical separation, ecological requirements, pollinator specicity or owering season but in gardens these barriers break down and hybrids arise freely. This tendency is encouraged in Geranium as pollen is often released before the female part of the ower is receptive so increasing the likelihood of cross-pollination. Where two or more geraniums grow together hybrid seedlings often crop up and many good garden plants have arisen in this way while others are the product of a more deliberate breeding process. The most important breeding work in the genus has been performed by Alan Bremner who began hybridising hardy geraniums in 1985 and has made many thousands of crosses. His work and record keeping have proved a valuable scientic resource in addition to realising some of the potential of Geranium as an ornamental genus. Hundreds of individual hybrids have been given cultivar names but it is sometimes useful to provide a collective botanical epithet, or hybrid binomial, for all the progeny derived from the crossing of two parents. The name Geranium antipodeum, for example, can be applied to any plant resulting from the hybridisation of G. sessiliorum and G. traversii. The known crosses in Geranium are so various that to provide names for them all would be impractical and confusing and species are so promiscuous in gardens that to apply the names reliably would be difcult but where the same cross occurs repeatedly it is helpful to be able to use a hybrid binomial. The most prevalent hybrid binomial in Geranium is G. oxonianum. These are hybrids between G. endressii and G. versicolor that are fertile and so produce seedlings of their own, many of which have been named. On occasion seedlings of G. oxonianum display a mutation in which the petals are much narrowed and the anthers often rather attened giving a semi double-owered effect. This peculiar form was rst noted in 1927 and given the name G. endressii var. thurstonianum as its hybrid origin was not then realised. In 1929 Miss Eleanor Armitage found another narrow-petalled variant in her garden in Herefordshire and over the years a number of similar seedlings such as Breckland Brownie, Sherwood and Southcombe Star have been selected. To try to limit the unnecessary increase of cultivar names the botanical epithet G. oxonianum f. thurstonianum has been provided. This name can be applied to all the narrowpetalled variants of G. oxonianum and distinctive named clones attributed to it as in G. oxonianum f. thurstonianum Sue Cox. For further details see Grant, M.L. (2005) Thurstons cranes-bill. The Plantsman (n.s.) 4(1): 2829.
Findings
Botanical and nomenclatural notes
Several entries proved to be incorrectly named including Shepherds Warning AGM and Richard Elsey which turned out to be Glenluce. The plant entered as G. peloponnesiacum was identied as G. Stephanie, a hybrid of that species. Both Shepherds Warning and Richard Elsey were re-sourced and referred for further assessment. Geranium endressii can be very difcult to distinguish from Geranium oxonianum and the botanical differences lie in small details of the fruit and veining of the petals. There has been little consensus over the attribution of Castle Drogo, Betty Catchpole and Beholders Eye to these taxa. After examination of the plants in trial it appears most likely that Castle Drogo and Betty Catchpole are selections of G. endressii and Beholders Eye is a G. oxonianum cultivar. Geranium Farncombe Cerise Star was entered into trial as a cultivar of Geranium oxonianum. The plant has narrow petals as in G. oxonianum f. thurstonianum but its large size and bright magenta owers reveal that it is a hybrid between G. oxonianum and G. psilostemon. The narrowpetalled ower form had not previously been recognised as occurring in crosses other than G. oxonianum but since the trial similar G. oxonianum G. psilostemon hybrids have come to light one of which has been named Kanahitobanawa.
Geranium from the Tien Shan Mountains in China
G.
Geranium
oxonianum cultivars
Around half the entries in Stage 2 of the trial were cultivars of Geranium oxonianum and so there was good opportunity to assess the distinctiveness of the named cultivars of that hybrid. It was found that many plants were extremely similar and not worthy of recognition with a cultivar epithet. It is strongly recommended that use be made of the national collections and available literature when considering naming G. oxonianum seedlings.
New introductions
The trial was useful in drawing attention to some notable new introductions including a currently unidentied species from the Tien Shan mountains in China and two forms of Geranium psilostemon, one with pale pink owers and the other pure white owers. These latter plants had been grown in a garden in Istanbul and were unnamed at the time of publication but have obvious potential for breeding purposes.
G. psilostemon pink-owered
G. psilostemon white-owered
G. oxonianum Fertile hybrids between G. endressii and G. versicolor appearing frequently where the two parents are grown together. This hybrid does not occur naturally but populations escaped from gardens can be found in the wild in Britain and France. It is a reliable, hardy and commonly cultivated plant growing to around 50cm in height with rather pentagonal leaves sometimes blotched brown. The funnel-shaped owers to around 40mm wide are usually in shades of pink. It is not the most eye-catching member of the genus and its leafy stems tend to fall apart as the season progresses but it is nevertheless an important garden plant. A very large number of cultivars have been named including Claridge Druce, a vigorous plant with dark venation on the petals, Trevors White with pure white owers and Rosenlicht with reddish-purple owers.
G. sanguineum A low-growing bushy, rapidly spreading plant found throughout most of Europe, the Caucuses and Turkey. The stems emerge from underground rhizomes and carry paired leaves that, at around 5cm across, are rather small and deeply divided into 5 or 7. The owers are a striking shade of purple-red, upward-facing to about 40mm wide. G. sanguineum var. striatum is native to Walney Island and other places on the Cumbrian coast and are low-growing plants with very pale pink owers, of which the cultivar Splendens is a ne selection. Other cultivars include Album with white owers, Cedric Morris with very large owers and South Nuteld with blue-tinged, owers while hybrids include Dilys and Tiny Monster.
G. psilostemon
G. oxonianum f. thurstonianum A form of G. oxonianum that has arisen independently on numerous occasions in which the petals have become narrowed up to a width of 6mm, a feature that is often accompanied by a semi-double effect caused by the attening of the anthers. Several clones have been named including Armitageae, Sherwood and David McClintock.
G. psilostemon One of the most impressive members of the genus is this spectacular species from N.E. Turkey that forms upright mounds growing to around 120cm. The leaves are large, to about 20cm wide, with up to 7 jagged divisions at the base becoming smaller and less lobed as they ascend the stem. The owers to 40mm across are a startling magenta colour with black centres. Selections include Bressingham Flair with crumpled, notched petals and the very large Coton Goliath while Ann Folkard with golden-green foliage, Ivan and Eva are hybrids with other species.
G. tuberosum
G. endressii A tolerant evergreen perennial usually growing to less than 50cm tall with deeply divided, hairy leaves, the divisions lobed and diamond-shaped. The owers are erect up to 40mm wide with notched petals of a deep pink colour deepening with age and borne over a long period. An adaptable plant for shade or sun G. endressii can become weedy in ideal conditions. One of the parents of G. oxonianum this species also forms attractive hybrids with several other species including G. traversii to make G. riversleaianum and G. psilostemon as in G. PATRICIA (Brempat). Selections include Betty Catchpole and Castle Drogo.
G. tuberosum/G. malviorum/G. albanum G. malviorum is found wild in southern Spain and northern Africa while G. tuberosum has a range extending across the Mediterranean into Iran. They are closely related species belonging in the Tuberosum Group and have adapted to surviving in a hot dry climate by becoming dormant for the summer months after owering. They are both vigorous plants with strongly dissected leaves but with owers bright rose-purple in G. tuberosum, blue in G. malviorum. G. albanum is another summer dormant species from the Caucasus and Iran with pink owers and magenta veins borne over a longer period.
G. libani
G. versicolor An open or spreading plant though growing from a rather compact rootstock, reaching a height of perhaps 60cm. The leaves grow to 15cm or so and are more open than in either G. endressii or G. oxonianum usually with brown blotches where the divisions meet. The erect owers are about 40mm across, white, trumpet-shaped with notched, net-veined petals. Native to Italy and southern parts of the Balkan peninsula this species makes effective groundcover but is mostly represented in gardens through its hybrid G. oxonianum. There is a selection called G. versicolor Snow White which lacks pigment in the veins.
G. libani/G. peloponnesiacum Two similar Mediterranean species with attractive basal foliage that appears in autumn and persists over winter being perhaps susceptible to very cold weather. The airy, umbel-like inorescence of violet owers appear in spring after which the plants die. The presence of glandular hairs on G. peloponnesiacum which are absent on G. libani provides the best means of reliably distinguishing the two species. A G. libani G. peloponnesiacum hybrid named Solitaire was also assessed in the trial.
Geranium Ivan AGM (H4) 2005 Sent by Meadow Cottage Plants A magnicent and imposing perennial owering furiously over a long period. Provide room in the border and combine with other strong colours. Mound-forming to spreading perennial, to 80 170cm in trial. Basal leaf blades to 180 200mm, borne on long petioles to c55cm, with short, white, adpressed hairs
becoming sparse and curly on the underside, yellow-green (146A) becoming red-ecked, ageing to brown, divided into 5 or 7 to about four fths; divisions not overlapping, lobed to about one third, the lobes further lobed with neat, regular, triangular, acute teeth. Stem leaves in pairs, mostly divided into 3 with sharp lobes and glandular hairs. Stems green with an even covering of long to medium gland-tipped hairs. Inorescence borne around periphery of foliage, owers in pairs. Sepals elliptic, covered in glandtipped hairs, mucro to 2mm. Flowers large to 50mm across, reddish-purple (74A/B) veined reddish-purple (79A), uniting at the base to form a blackish, shiny eye; petals broad obovate, 25 22mm, faintly notched at the apex. Geranium PATRICIA (Brempat) AGM (H4) 2005 Sent by Hardys Cottage Garden Plants Forming a spreading mound of lush foliage that is smothered in owers from early to mid summer this is a bold and spectacular border perennial. Mound-forming to spreading perennial to 65 130cm in trial. Basal leaf blades to c160 170mm borne on long petioles to c48cm, with short, white adpressed hairs becoming sparse and curly on the undersides, yellow-green (146A) becoming red-ecked, aging to brown, divided into 5 or 7 to about four fths; divisions not overlapping, lobed to between c one third and one half, the lobes further lobed, these rather narrowly triangular, acute, irregularly toothed. Stem leaves in pairs, 3-5 times divided into regular, narrowly triangular, sharppointed lobes and persistent, triangular, long-pointed stipules, 8 2mm. Stems green with an even covering of long to medium gland-tipped hairs. Inorescence borne around periphery of foliage. Flowers in pairs, pedicels tacky to touch. Sepals elliptic-oblong, covered in glandtipped hairs, mucro to 4mm. Flowers large to 50mm across, reddish-purple (74A) veined reddish-purple (redder than 79A) these uniting at centre to give a shiny dark centre to ower; petals obovate to broad obovate, c24 17mm, varyingly notched at the apex.
Geranium endressii Castle Drogo AGM (H4) 2005 Sent by Catforth Gardens Masses of pretty, peachy owers freely produced from mid May to early August makes this a cottage garden classic in the best tradition of hardy geraniums. Mound-forming becoming spreading perennial to 40 120cm in trial. Basal leaf blades to c65 70mm on petioles to 200mm, with an even covering of white, rather bristly, eglandular hairs mostly conned to the veins on the underside, mid green (137A), pentagonal in outline, divided to about three quarters into 5 or 7; divisions overlapping, widest about the middle, shallowly lobed; lobes obscure with a cut margin, sharp-pointed. Stem leaves in pairs, 5 times divided with jagged lobes becoming smaller and simpler towards the apex. Stems green, evenly covered with patent, medium and short hairs, the latter gland-tipped. Inorescence borne around the periphery of the foliage and separated by a length of bare stem. Sepals ovate-lanceolate, 7 3mm, mucro c1mm, hairs conned mostly to the veins. Flowers to 25mm across, peachy purple (52C/D) with ne, slightly darker veins, older owers becoming bleached between the veins to pale pink (75C); petals obovate to obcordate, c16 10mm, overlapping, distinctly notched. Geranium oxonianum Beholders Eye AGM (H4) 2005 Sent by Hellyers Garden Plants Standing out from the crowd this is a neat and tidy cultivar producing throughout the summer and into autumn purple-pink owers that are white at the centre. Mound-forming perennial, 55 135cm in trial. Basal leaf blades to c70 85mm borne on long petioles to c200cm, dark green (147A), with an even covering of short, white, eglandular hairs, absent on the underside except at the veins, divided to four fths into 5-7, divisions, little overlapping, widest about the middle, lobed to about halfway; lobes with regular teeth, rounded with an acute tip. Stem leaves in pairs, 3 or 5 times divided, with acute, triangular toothed lobes becoming smaller and simpler towards the apex. Stems green, red-ushed in parts
especially on the pedicels covered in fairly long patent hairs. Inorescence remaining fairly compact. Sepals ovate-lanceolate, 10 3mm, sparse hairs along the veins, mucro to 2mm; owers c30mm across, deep reddish-purple (71C), veins white towards the base forming a pale eye; petals obovate, 20 8mm with a vshaped notch at the apex. Geranium sanguineum Ankums Pride AGM (H4) 2005 Sent by Monksilver Nursery A ne ground-hugging cultivar that makes spectacular groundcover with its low-growing habit and dazzling red-purple owers. Spreading, rhizomatous perennial 20 70cm in trial. Rosette leaves few, soon disappearing. Stem leaves c30 40mm, mid green (137B/C) evenly covered with short, white hairs becoming longer on the underside, divided almost to the base into 5 or 7, often truncate at the base; divisions clearly distinct, cuneate, widest near the apex, revolute, acute with 1 or 2 lobes, lobes lanceolate, lacking teeth with a tiny, acute tip. Stems prostrate, green ushed reddish-brown on exposed sides, evenly covered with patent, eglandular hairs of varying lengths. Flowers borne in pairs or singly on long peduncle to 70mm or more, pedicels to 25mm. Sepals elliptic-ovate, 9 4mm with long white hairs along the veins, mucro to 1.5mm. Flowers 35mm across, purplish pink (66C), nely veined bluish purple (81A); petals broad obovate, to 20 17mm, crimped and faintly notched at the apex. Geranium sanguineum Aviemore AGM (H4) 2005 Sent by Hellyers Garden Plants Tidier than many of its species this cultivar impresses in a sunny spot with its vivid pinkish-purple owers and low, mound-forming habit. Spreading, rhizomatous perennial 30 110cm in trial. Rosette leaves few, soon disappearing. Stem leaves paired c40 45mm, mid green (137A) sparsely covered with short, adpressed hairs, longer but conned to the veins on the underside, divided almost to the base into 5 or 7; divisions clearly distinct, cuneate, widest near the apex, revolute, acute, usually with 2 lobes; lobes lanceolate,
lacking teeth with a minute, acute tip. Stems prostrate, green, ushed reddish brown with a light covering of long, fairly coarse, patent hairs. Flowers borne singly or in pairs on peduncle to c50mm; pedicels to c25mm. Sepals elliptic-ovate, 9 3mm with long white hairs along the veins; mucro to 2mm. Flowers 40mm across, purplish-pink (74A/B), lightly veined reddish-purple (61A); petals obcordate, to 20 10mm, crimped with deep, v-shaped notch at the apex. Geranium sanguineum var. striatum Splendens AGM (H4) 2005 Sent by Rosies Garden Plants A splendid clone with at, white owers, prettily ushed with purple and pink veins. A perfect mix of daintiness and vigour. Spreading, rhizomatous perennial, 25 60cm in trial. Rosette leaves few, soon disappearing. Stem leaves paired, c55 65mm, dark green (147A) sparsely covered with short, adpressed hairs, longer but conned to the veins on the underside, divided almost to the base into 7; divisions with 1 or 2 lobes or lobeless, clearly distinct, cuneate, widest near the apex, revolute, rounded at the apex with a minute, acute tip; lobes lanceolate, sometimes suppressed, lacking teeth, rounded with a minute, acute tip. Stems prostrate with a light covering of medium length, patent hairs, green ushed red (183C) on the exposed side. Flowers borne singly or in pairs on a peduncle to c80mm; pedicels to 40mm. Sepals elliptic, 7 4mm with long white hairs along the veins; mucro to 1.5mm. Flowers to 35mm across, white, secondary veins ushed pink (62B/C), ne primary veins pinkish purple (64C); petals broad obovate, to 16 15mm, with a shallow notch at the apex.
10
Acknowledgements
Particular thanks are due to: RHS Floral Trials curatorial staff, headed by Jim England (Trials Superintendent) for planting and maintaining the 400 plants over the three year period; Barry Phillips (Herbarium Technician) for the herbarium specimens, photography and detailed descriptions of the 136 different entries of the trial all of which can be viewed at the RHS Herbarium at Wisley; Wendy Wesley (Trials Ofcer) for recording owering, measuring plants and collating all the information for the trial; all photographs in this bulletin are by Wendy unless credited otherwise; Andrew Norton (Geranium National Plant Collection holder) who has been so very generous with his plants, time and expertise throughout the trial; David Victor, Rachel Etheridge, Robin Moss and Robin Parer for their help and comments, particularly at the Geranium Trials Open Days (and to Birgitte Husted Bendtsen who came over from Denmark and gave a witty talk on how she came to love and write about hardy geraniums); all the senders of plants to the trial without whom the trial could not have taken place; and last, but not least, to Elizabeth Strangman without whom the trial would not have taken place.
Further reading
Bath, T. & J. Jones. (1994) The Gardeners Guide to Growing Hardy Geraniums. David & Charles, Newton Abbot Bendtsen B. H. (2005) Gardening with Hardy Geraniums. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. Hibberd, D. (2003) RHS Wisley Handbooks: Hardy Geraniums. Cassell Illustrated, Great Britain Parker, G. (ed.). (2001) Hardy Geraniums for the Garden. Hardy Plant Society, Pershore Victor, D.X. (2nd edition, 2004) Register of Geranium Cultivar Names. The Geranium Group, UK Yeo, P.F. (3rd edition, 2002) Hardy Geraniums. B T Batsford, London
11
Habit
Geranium
Name
55
130cm
50
200cm
60
170cm
50
180cm
Pale purple (75D), strongly veined Pinkish purple (78D), white towards base Reddish purple (74B) Purplish pink (66D) Strong purplishpink (55A/B) Pink (65A)
70
150cm
60
120cm
G.
55
120cm
Late May early October Early June mid October Late May early October Mid May early October
G.
65
130cm
60
100cm
60
140cm
(10)
12
10
11
12
G. Ann Folkard
(11)
Reddish purple (darker than 78A) with black eye Violet (88C), ushed pink, veins purple
60
190cm
30
70cm
G. Eva (12)
60
150cm
60
160cm
G. Ivan
Reddish purple (74A/B) veined purple (79A) Reddish-purple (darker than 74A) with a black eye Reddish purple (74A) with dark veins Reddish purple (74A), veined redder than 79A Reddish purple (darker than 74A), veins dark Reddish purple (74A), veined reddish purple (79A)
80
170cm
60
140cm
Blooms to 6cm across make this the largest-owered G. psilostemon cultivar. Bold foliage with owers profusely borne. Similar to PATRICIA (Brempat) but owers less intense.
80
160cm
90
200cm
G. Nicola (16)
60
140cm
G. PATRICIA (Brempat)
70
160cm
13
14
15
16
13
17
18
19
20
Name G. psilostemon
Colour
Habit 2/4
Dimensions 70 150
(17)
Reddish purple (74A) with black veins and eye Pale purplish pink (75C/76B)
70
110cm
A very different plant lacking the typical black eye of G. psilostemon. Large plant bearing pure white owers mostly towards the end of the season. A real innovation.
White
80
90cm
(20)
Pure white
45
100cm
Clean, pure white owers refreshing to the eye. Vibrant pink owers on oriferous, ground-hugging stems with a second ush in September. Flowers held well above the foliage.
20
70cm
Pinkish purple (74A/B), veined purple (61A) Reddish purple (78A), veined red (71A) Strong reddish purple (78B)
30
110cm
40
90cm
A vigorous clone with pale foliage and very large, glowing owers. Bears dark-centred owers over a long period, though sparse in June. Good shape and tidy. Differing little from the norm but said to have good autumn colour. Might be grown at front of border for its compact, domeforming habit. Tidy, mound-forming stems.
(24)
30
160cm
Reddish purple (78A), veined red (60B) Purple (80A), veins reddish (72A)
40
90
G. sanguineum Nyewood
30
60cm
Purple (78B) veined purplish red (60B) Pinkish purple (78A), veined dark purple (83A)
30
70cm
20
50cm
21
22
23
24
14
25
26
27
28
Colour Dark purple (81A), veined red(60A0 White or pale pink veined pink (64C)
Habit 3
Dimensions 30 60cm
Notes Flowers with an unusual bluish hue. An attractive plant best represented by the clone Splendens Large saucer-shaped owers with pink-veined petals.
30
100cm
White, veins ushed pink (62B/C) and (64C) Purple (78A), veined red (61A)
25
60cm
20
50cm
50
180cm
Late May early July Late May early October Mid May mid October Late April late May
Very oriferous in trial and can be grown through other specimens. Clear pink owers and forming an attractive dome. Large bright pink owers; oriferous. A graceful plant but perhaps best suited to the large rock garden. Delightful upward-facing owers but may be difcult to ower well. Attractive but may prove too vigorous.
G. endressii Betty Catchpole (26) G. endressii Castle Drogo (27) G. libani (28)
30
130cm
30
150cm
2/4
40
80cm
Purple (82A)
40
60cm
Purplish pink (80A), with darker veins (80C) Pale violet (88D), veined purple (83B) Very pale pink (69D) to white Pale pink (76C), veined reddish pink (66C)
G. Stephanie (31)
2/4
Late April late June Mid June late August Late April late May
45
60cm
29
30
31
32
15
RHS Bulletins
Canna: September 2003 Daisies (yellow perennial): September 2004 Delphinium: June 2004 Fuchsias (hardy): December 2005 Geraniums (hardy) Stage 1: June 2005 Hyacinthaceae (little blue bulbs): September 2005 Lavenders (hardy): July 2003 Miscanthus: October 2004 Potatoes (salad): November 2004 Potentilla (shrubby): July 2002 Rhododendron yakushimanum & hybrids: May 2006 Saxifrages (silver): May 2005 Spiraea japonica (with coloured leaves): November 2003
These bulletins can be viewed at a larger size on the RHS Website: www.rhs.org.uk/plants/trials_bulletins.asp
Trials Ofce
RHS Herbarium
The RHS Herbarium keeps a record of trial cultivars as dried specimens with detailed descriptions and photographic images. This forms an important reference for the horticultural industry. Any new cultivars are highlighted and a Standard specimen is preserved and described. The RHS Herbarium, stored at RHS Garden Wisley, is the largest active horticultural herbarium in the world. At present the collection contains about 70,000 herbarium specimens and over 55,000 images of plants. Material is actively collected from a wide spectrum of sources including RHS plant trials.
www.rhs.org.uk/trials
Reg charity no. 222879 All text & images Copyright RHS 2006 ISSN: 1477-9153 (print) ISSN: 1447-9161 (online)