Breeding of Fruit and Plantation Crops PDF

2017
Breeding of
Fruit and
Plantation
Crops
Dr. J. Auxcilia
Dr. N. Shabha
Breeding of Fruit and Plantation Crops
Author
Dr. J. Auxcilia
Dr. N. Shabha
Index
Lecture Name Page No

1 History and development, importance of fruit breeding 5-10
2 Centers of diversity distribution and domestication of fruit species 11-18
3 Problems in fruit breeding – heterozygosity, polyploidy 19-23
4 Problems in fruit breeding –(contd) polyembryony, parthenocarpy & 24-27
seedlessness
5 Incompatibility & sterility systems 28-36
6 Apomixis - merits & demerits, types 37-42
7 Variability, Germplasm and its significance 43-48
8 Breeding strategies – Clonal selection 49-55
9 Breeding strategies – Bud mutations and Chimeras 56-60
10 Breeding strategies – Mutagenesis and its application 61-66
11 Breeding strategies – hybridization and problems associated with. 67-71
12 Resistance breeding for biotic & abiotic stresses 72-78
13 Role of genetic engineering and biotechnology in improvement of fruit 79-85
crops
14 Mid semester examination 86
15 Crop improvement in Mango 87-95
16 Crop improvement in Banana 96-106
17 Crop improvement in Citrus 107-123
18 Crop improvement in Grapes 124-134
19 Crop improvement in Papaya 135-145
20 Crop improvement in Sapota & Pomegranate 146-155
21 Crop improvement in Pine apple & Guava 156-168
22 Crop improvement in Apple and other Rosaceae crops 169-178
23 History and importance of plantation crops 179-182
24 Origin, distribution, domestication and adoption of plantation crops 183-186
25 Breeding strategies, clonal selection, poly-clonal orchards, bud 187-189
mutation, mutagenesis and its application in crop improvement of
plantation crops
26 Hybridization, haploid and ploidy breeding and In vitro techniques in 190-196
the improvement of plantation crops
27 Genetic resources, objectives of breeding, principles and method of 197-212
breeding and salient breeding achievements in Coconut
breeding and salient breeding achievements in Arecanut and oil palm
breeding and salient breeding achievements in palmyrah palm and
rubber
breeding and salient breeding achievements in cashewnut
breeding and salient breeding achievements in coffee
breeding and salient breeding achievements in tea
breeding and salient breeding achievements in cocoa
breeding and salient breeding achievements in kokam & betelvine
Practical schedule
1 Study of floral biology & anthesis time in mango and Cashew 278-281
2 Study of floral biology & different cultivars of banana for their genome 282-288
3 Study of different species of citrus & morphological description 289-293
4 Study of floral biology of Guava & Sapota 294-297
5 Study of floral biology of grape and pomegranate 298-301
6 Study of pollen fertility in major fruit crops 302-305
7 Study & practice of crossing technique in major fruit crops 306-309
8 Study of polyembryony in certain mango & citrus spp 310-311
9 Study of different sex forms of papaya, their anthesis time 312-314
10 Visit to Biotechnology Lab & study of in– vitro breeding techniques 315-318
11 Exposure to resistance breeding & screening techniques 319-324
12 Practices in mutation breeding 325-329
13 Botany, floral biology, selfing and crossing techniques for plantation 330-336
crops
14 Study of pollen viability, emasculation and pollination procedures in 337-340
plantation crops
15 Production of hybrids in plantation crops 341-342
16 Visit to research institutes involved in Plantation crops Research 343
17 Practical examination 344
Lecture.1
History, Development and Importance of Fruit Breeding
India is bestowed with a wide range of agro climatic and soil conditions.
Therefore, almost all types of fruits can be grown in one or the other parts of the country.
India is the second largest producer of fruits next to China. In India, horticultural crops
occupy about 6.7% of gross area,contribute about 18% of gross value of agricultural
output and 52% of export earnings in agriculture.
The inherent nature of a long gestation period, high heterozygosity, scanty

information on inheritance pattern, often cross pollination, excessive fruit drop,
parthenocarpy and low seed number restricting the availability of hybrid seedlings for
evaluation are the real challenges in crop improvement. Even though, planned
hybridization and clonal selections have been attempted in a number of fruit crops and
these efforts have resulted in the development of promising varieties in mango, grape,
guava, papaya, sapota, banana, etc. Systematic much more and dedicated efforts are
required for the development of ideal varieties through modern tools.
More focus on search for desired genes, critical study of inheritance pattern and
use of biotechnological tools are needed in combining ideal characteristics in varietal
improvement programme of fruit crops.
History of fruit research
Fruit research in India was started at the Departments of botany in six

Agricultural Colleges established in 1905 at Pune, Coimbatore, Lyallpur, Nagpur, Sabour
and Kanpur. Almost at the same time, the Imperial Agricultural Research Institute was
set up at Pusa (Bihar) and the Provincial and Central Departments of Agriculture were
organized which were to look after the work on horticultural crops. At that time, the
responsibility of research on fruit crops was mainly of the State Governments. During
this period, some of the European settlers like Lee in Kullu Valley, Coutts and Stokes in
Shimla hills and some European Missionaries in South India introduced new varieties of
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fruit crops from UK, France and East Indies etc. A pomological Station was established
at Coonoor near Ooty in 1920 to study the adaptability of temperate fruit varieties.
The initiative by the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research to provide

financial assistance to the Provincial Governments in the year 1929 gave considerable
boost to research activities. Several schemes were sanctioned to the State Governments to
carryout work on important problems. E.g. Citrus dieback, fruit preservation, nutritional
value of fruits and control of pests such as San Jose scale of temperate fruits.
Fruit Breeding
Fruit breeding is the manipulation of a biological system that requires many

generations to achieve result. It is also a dynamic, exciting and challenging profession,
operating under continually changing conditions.
Major problems in fruit breeding
Most of the fruit crops have long generation cycle of 2-10 years depending upon
species and cultivars and hence more recombinations are not possible.
Fruit crops have long juvenile period and making it difficult for early assessment
of strains e.g. mango, Madhuka latifolia, jack fruit etc.
Madhuka latifolia
Majority of the fruit species are highly heterozygous, requiring large populations
for an effective selection
Most fruit species are polyploidy in nature e.g. ber, banana etc.
Polyembryony nature of fruit species e.g. citrus, mango
Presence of parthenocarpy and seedlessness e.g. banana, pineapple etc.
Presence of sexual incompatibility e.g. mango, apple, pear, loquat etc.

More number of chromosome hinders genetic analysis e.g. ber, mulberry.
Excessive fruit drop e.g. mango, citrus, grape etc
Presence of single seed in most of the cases warrants more number of crosses e.g.
mango, litchi, mahua etc.
Objectives of fruit breeding
The objectives of fruit breeding depends on the fruit crops, location and
requirements of the consumers. The main objectives of fruit breeding is to get
maximum quality production per unit area with low cost, besides tolerance to biotic
and abiotic stresses, the objectives are distinct and variable in respect of breeding for
rootstocks and scions.
For rootstock
Wide geographical adaptability
Easily propagated, preferably through asexual means
Compatibility with most of the scion cultivars having strong scion stock
union and more longevity
Resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses
Induction of dwarfing without affecting the productivity of scion cultivars
Should possess strong root system with out brittleness e.g. EM 9 root stock
of apple
It should be free from suckering habit
For scion cultivars

Dwarf stature
Regular, precocious and prolific bearing per unit canopy area
High productivity with good quality fruits
Resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses
Attractive fruit colour with pleasant aroma
Suitable for processing and export
Good keeping and transport quality
Importance of fruit breeding

Although cultivation and utilization of fruits have been known in India since the
Vedic age, a modest beginning for systematic research was made only during the
twenties. Owing to the growing awareness on the importance of fruits in daily diet and
the need to increase their supply position to the growing population, more emphasis was
laid on fruit research during the sixties. Especially during the last fifteen years,
development in horticulture has gradually moved from rural to urban areas and from
traditional agricultural enterprise to corporate sector adopting improved technology,
greater commercialization and professionalism in the management of production and
marketing. During the last two decades, research approach on fruits has undergone
considerable change with ever-increasing multi-location, inter-disciplinary and inter-
institutional involvement to solve specific problems in a coordinated manner. Intensive
research in horticulture has been taken up in many ICAR institutions, Agricultural
Universities for the last 50 years with the result that many improved cultivars have been
made available for planting by the horticulturist despite the fact that the problems are
encountered in breeding of horticultural crops are enormous. Research on crop
improvement in fruit crops is receiving considerable augmentation on account of the
newly emerging production constraints due to pest, diseases, drought, salinity and climate
change.
General steps in fruit breeding
Introduction Population with total

Natural variability
Domestication variability
Germplasm collection
through exploration
Selection of ideal
Ideotype (elite plants)
Mutation
Created variability
Somaclonal variation
Polyploidy
Hybridization
Intervarietal
Performance evaluation
Interspecific
Intergeneric
Mass multiplication
and distribution
Questions
1. Fruit research in India was started during 1905.
Ans: True
2. What do you understand by the terminology “Fruit breeding”?
Ans: Fruit breeding is the manipulation of a biological system that requires many
generations to achieve result. It is also a dynamic, exciting and challenging profession,
operating under continually changing conditions
3. Polyembryony exists in mango, citrus.
Ans: True
4. Excessive fruit drop is found in grapes.
Ans: True
5. Rootstocks should be resistant to biotic and abiotic stresses.
Ans: True
Lecture.2
Centers Of Diversity, Distribution And Domestication Of Fruit Species
Centre of origin (Primary and secondary)
The concept of centre of origin was conceived by N.I. Vavilov based on his
studies of a vast collection of plants at the Institute of Plant Industry, Leningrad during his
tenure as Director from 1916 to 1936. According to Vavilov, crop plants evolved from wild
species in the areas showing great diversity and termed them as primary centers of origin.
But in some areas, certain crop species show considerable diversity of forms although, they
have not originated from such areas which are known as secondary centers. Eight main
centers of origin are recognized as proposed by Vavilov.
China
This is one of the largest and oldest center of origin. It includes mountainous parts
of Central and Western China besides, neighboring lowlands.
Examples
Pear (Pyrus communis)
Peach (Prunus persica)
Apricot (Prunus armeniaca)
Plum (Prunus salicina)
Mandarin (Citrus reticulata)
Hindustan
This centre includes Burma, Assam, Malayan Archipelago, Java, Borneo, Sumatra
and Philippines. But, this centre does not include North West India, Punjab and North
Western Frontier Provinces. Later on, this center of origin is divided into Indo-Burma and
Siam-Malaya-Java centre of origin.
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Examples
Mango (Mangifera indica)
Sour lime (Citrus aurantifolia)
Mandarin (Citrus reticulata)
Coconut (Cocos nucifera)
Banana (Musa sapientum)
Central Asia
It is also known as the Afghanistan centre of origin. It includes North West India
(Punjab, North-West Frontier Provinces and Kashmir), all Afghanistan, Soviet Republics of
Tajikistan and Uzbekistan and Tian-Shan;
Examples
Pistachio nut (Pistacia vera)
Almond (Prunus amygdalis)
Grape (Vitis vinifera)
Apple (Malus sp.)
Some species of apricot (Prunus armeniaca) and pear (Pyrus spp).
Asia Minor
It includes the interior of Asia Minor, the whole of Transcaucasia, Iran, and high
lands of Turkmenistan. This centre is also known as the Near East or Persian centre of origin.
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Primary centre of origin
Fig (Ficus carica)
Pomegranate (Punica granatum)
Some species of apple, Pyrus, Prunus and grape
Secondary centre of origin
Chestnut and pistachio nut
Mediterranean centre of origin – Example Pippermint (Mentha sp.)
Abyssinian
It includes Ethiopia and hilly country of Eritrea. Example: Coffee.
Central America
This includes region of South Mexico and Central America. It is also known as
Mexican centre of origin.
Examples
Papaya (Carica papaya)
Guava (Psidium guajava)
Avocado(Persia americana)
South America
This centre includes the high mount regions of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia,
parts of Chile and Brazil and whole of Paraguay. Further, this centre was sub-divided into
three centres i.e. Peru, Chile and Brazil-Paraguay centre of origin.
Examples: Pineapple and a few species of guava.
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Diversity in Horticultural crops

Genetic resources constitute the foundation upon which horticulture is based.
Of these, the least understood and most undervalued are the Horticultural Genetic Resources
(HGR). These resources consist of diversity of genetic material in the form of traditional
varieties and modern cultivars grown by farmers as well as wild relatives and other wild
plants occurring in nature. Over the years, hundreds of different plant species have been
domesticated and within each species, human and natural selection have combined to
produce thousands of different varieties. In developed world, ‘primitive cultivars’ or
‘landraces’ have given way to more productive, uniform, modern cultivars.
Another important aspect of HGR is their requirement of specific

management strategy. For instance, some genetic resources can be conserved in seed gene
bank while others will need field gene bank, some genetic resources are propagated by seed,
whereas others by vegetative methods and some genetic resources are annual herbs while
others are perennial trees. Therefore, management of genetic resources of horticultural crops
is gigantic tasks offering both challenges and opportunities which cannot be accomplished by
one or a few institutions but a large number of institutions are required to join hands together.
HGR in indian gene centre

The horticultural diversity existing in India today comprises both indigenous and
exotic genetic resources. Among native horticultural crops of India, rich diversity exists in
50 different indigenous fruits and their wild relatives, totaling about 400 species. The North
Eastern region has maximum concentration of wild relatives of fruits followed by the
Western Himalayas. Rich diversity in North –eastern region is reported in citrus, mango and
banana. The Indian wild orange, C,indica, is found in the Naga hills, Garo hills of
Meghalaya and Kaziranga forests of Assam. Similarly, in mango, wild forms of Mangifera
indica and its allied species of M. sylvatica are native to Andaman Islands. Rich diversity
occurs in North –Western and Eastern Himalayan regions for Pyrus ,Rubus, Ribes and
Prunus. The Shillong plateau of Khasi hills in Meghalya accounts for many Prunus species
such as P.nepaulensis, P.undulata and P.cerasoides. There are many minor fruit plants that
have potential for exploitation. These include bael fruit (Aegle marmelos), Indian gooseberry
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(Emblica officinalis), papaya (Carica papaya), Jack fruit (Artocarpus hetrophyllus), custard-
apple (Annona sp), Karonda (Carissa sp), cordia or (cordia myxa) and phalsa (Grewia
asiatica).
HGR management in India
North – Eastern region Pumpkin, cucumber, Okra, eggplant, chilli, pointed

gourd, ash gourd, taro, yams, citrus spp. Citrus lemon,
C.medica, C. jambhiri, C.ichagensis, C.latipes,
C.macroptera, C.assamensis, C,indica and
C.aurantium, banana, tea, tree cotton, and mesta, large
cardamom, ginger, long pepper and sugarcane
Western Himalayas Pumpkin, cucumber, Allium spp., ginger, brassicae,
pome, stone, soft and nut fruits, chayote, tree tomato,
medicinal plants.
Eastern Himalayas Pumpkin, cucumber, Allium spp., ginger, chayote, tree
tomato, brassicae, pome and stone fruits
Eastern peninsular Taro,yams, elephant foot yam, banana, mango, lemon
region / lime, jackfruit, niger, brassicae, sesame, ginger,
turmeric chilli, sugarcane, coconut and cotton
Gangetic plains Okra, eggplant, bitter gourd, Cucumis spp., Luffa spp.,
Jackfruit, mango, lemon / lime, orange jujube, Indian
gooseberry, jamun, melons, linseed, niger, sesame,
brassicae, sugarcane and mulberry
Indus plains Okra, Cucumis spp., khirni and phalsa
Western peninsular Okra, eggplant, cucumber, chilli, taro, yams, elephant
region foot yam, jackfruit, banana, lemon/ lime, orange,
jamun, sugacane, black pepper, turmeric ginger,
coconut, arecanut and cotton
Island regions Coconut, bread fruit, chilli, taro, yams and xanthosoma
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Management of HGR is an important issue, especially for a country like India,

which is predominantly an agrarian society and also richly endowed with HGR. In fact,
HGR management is more complex as compared to the field crops, and requires different
management strategies.
Regions in India with rich HGR diversity

The National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), New Delhi, is the
nodal institute working on survey, collection, exchange, quarantine, characterization,
evaluation, conservation and documentation of PGR, including HGR. It plays a pivotal role
in crop improvement and development and diversification of agriculture in India through
germplasm introduction from various foreign sources collection within the country and
abroad and germplasm supply to plant breeders and other users. (International collaboration
and infrastructural facilitates were strengthened manifold during 1980s. A cold-storage
module with a seed storage – of- the state of –art technology. National Gene bank (NGB)
was established in 1996 with a storage capacity of 1 million seed accessions. Well-equipped
cryo preservation and in vitro conservation facilities were developed to cater to the
conservation of HGR, especially recalcitrant seed species and vegetatively propagated
materials in 1986.
Acclimatization
When a plant material is introduced into a new area, it has to adapt itself to the new
environment. Thus, the process of adaptation of an individual to a changed climate, or the
adjustment of a species or a population to a changed environment over a number of
generations is called “acclimatization” or acclimation. A naturally cross-pollinated crop will
adapt itself to the new environment more quickly than a self-pollinated crop. In gene
recombinations, some of the genes be well adapted to the new environment, will be present
very often in the cross pollinated crops due to frequent cross pollination. Similarly, the
chances of a genetically variable population of a self-pollinated crop to become adapted to its
new environment are greater than those of a pure-line. Newly introduced materials of
unselected bulk may be promising in the initial phases of introduction but should prove very
well in later years. This is because nature selects from the heterogeneous population superior
6
genotypes that are better suited to the new environment from among the heterogenous
population and multiplies them in the course of a few years. A pure-line, on the other hand,
has practically no genetic variability and hence it does not offer much scope for making
selection adaptable to the newer place in which it has been introduced. A pure-line thus very
rarely succeeds as an introduction.
Some of the most important commercial crops cultivated extensively in India today
are introductions from other countries. Para rubber (Hevea sp), was first introduced from
Brazil in 1873. One or two attempts of introduction of this crop did not prove to be
successful, but now, India particularly Kerala has extensive plantations of rubber. Tapioca
(Manihot esculenta) has been introduced into India by the Portuguese and the Dutch. It is
now grown extensively in Kerala where, it is a staple food. Cinchona was first introduced
into the Nilgiris from Peru in 1860. Later it was introduced into Darjeeling. Coffee (Coffea
arabica) was first introduced into India in 1700 by a Muslim who returned from a pilgrimage
to Mecca. Today, coffee is grown extensively in South India and is an important commercial
crop both for internal consumption and for export.
Questions
1. Which one of the following has china as centre of origin?
a) Pears (Pyrus communis)

b) Grape (Vitis vinifera)
c) Fig (Ficus carica)
d) Pomegranate (Punica granatum)
Ans: Pears (Pyrus communis)
2. Which one of the following has Mediterranean centre as origin Pippermint (Mentha sp.)
Ans: True
3. Name crops from Hindustan centre of origin.
Ans:
• Mango (Mangifera indica)

• Sour lime (Citrus aurantifolia)
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• Mandarin (Citrus reticulata)

• Coconut (Cocos nucifera)
• Banana (Musa sapientum)
4. Central Asia is known as the Afghanistan centre of origin.
Ans: True
5. Which one of the following crops has Central American as centre of origin?
Ans:
• Apple (Malus sp.)
• Mandarin (Citrus reticulata)
• Plum (Prunus divaricata)
• Papaya (Carica papaya)
6. Expand HGR- Horticultural Genetic Resources
7. Expand (NBPGR) - /ational Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources.
8. National Gene bank (NGB) was established in the year 1996.
Ans: True
9. Give examples for introduced crop commercially cultivated extensively in India Rubber
(Hevea brasiliensis)
Ans: True
10. Coffee (Coffea arabica) was first introduced into India in 1700 by a Muslim.
Ans: True
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Lecture.3
Problems in fruit breeding - poly ploidy and heterozygosity
Polyploidy
An organism having more than two sets of homologous chromosomes is known as
a polyploid. Polyploidy is of general occurrence in plants while it is rare amongst
animals. If the somatic chromosome sets in a diploid be represented by AA BB CC then
the genome, i.e., the number in the genomes will be A B C. If this is represented by ‘n’
then the simple polyploid series would be:
2n – diploid
3n – triploid
4n – tetraploid
5n – pentaploid
6n – hexaploid
7n – heptaploid
8n – octaploid
9n – Nonaploid
10n – decaploid and so on
Polyploidy is pervasive in plants and some estimates suggest that 30-80% of

living plant species are polyploids, and many lineage show evidence of ancient
polyploidy (paleopolyploidy) in their genomes. Polyploid plants can arise spontaneously
in nature by several mechanisms, including meiotic or mitotic failures, and fusion of
unreduced (2n) gametes. Both autopolyploids (e.g. Potato) and allopolyploids (e.g.
canola, wheat and cotton) can be found among both wild and domesticated plant species.
Most polyploids display heterosis relative to their parental species. The mechanisms
leading to novel variation in newly formed allopolyploids may include gene dosage
effects (resulting from more numerous copies of genome content), the reunion of
divergent gene regulatory hierarchies, chromosomal rearrangements, and epigenetic
remodeling, all of which affect gene content and or expression levels. Many of these
rapid changes contribute to reproductive isolation and speciation.
Behaviour of polyploid crops
Polyploid plants tend to be larger and better at thriving in early succession

habitats such as farm fields. In the breeding of crops, the tallest and best thriving plants
are selected for. Thus, many crops (and agricultural weeds) may have unintentionally
been bred to a higher level of ploidy. The induction of polyploidy is a common technique
to overcome sterility of a hybrid species in plant breeding. In some situations, polyploid
crops are preferred because they are sterile. For example, many seedless fruit varieties are
seedless as a result of polyploidy. Such crops are propagated using asexual techniques
such as grafting. Polyploidy in crop plants is most commonly induced by treating seeds
with the chemical colchicine.
Examples of polyploid crops
• Triploid crops : banana, apple, ginger, watermelon, citrus

• Tetraploid crops : potato, cabbage, leek, tobacco, peanut, kinnow, pelargonium
• Hexaploid crops : chrysanthemum, bread wheat, triticale, oat, kiwifruit
• Octaploid crops : strawberry, dahlia, pansies, sugar cane
Some crops are found in a variety of ploidy. Apples, tulips and lilies are
commonly found as both diploid and triploid. Bananas are available as diploid, triploid,
tetraploid, and pentaploid. Daylilies (Hemerocallis spp) cultivars are available as either
diploid or tetraploid. Kinnows can be tetraploid, diploid, or triploid.
A survey of the chromosome numbers of the species in a genus or a family shows

that these species generally fall into a polyploid series. The species are grouped together
under a taxonomic head because of certain morphological resemblances and
relationships. They may be crossable or may not hybridize at all with one another.
However, the chromosome numbers of the species show a general relationship, i.e., they
form multiples of a common basic number. The chromosome numbers of the family
Solanaceae may be considered as an example.
Crops Ploidy level

Capsicum annum nigrum 12
C. annuum 24
Datura fastuosa 24
D. metal 24
D. stramonium 24
Hyocyamus labus 36
H. canadensis 72
icotiana sylvestris 24
. tabacum 48
. digluta 72
Physalis philadelphica 24
P. peruviana 48
Solanum marginatum 24
S. muricatum 24
S. alatum 48
S. tuberosum 48
S. nigrum 72
S. nigrum var. gigas 144
Types
Autopolyploidy
Autopolyploids are polyploids with multiple chromosome sets derived from a

single species. They can result from a spontaneous, naturally occurring genome doubling,
like the potato. Others might form following fusion of 2n gametes (unreduced gametes).
Bananas and apples can be found as autopolyploids. Autopolyploid plants typically
display polysomic inheritance, and are therefore often infertile and propagated clonally.
Allopolyploidy
Allopolyploids are polyploids with chromosomes derived from different species.

Precisely, it is the result of doubling of chromosome number in an F1 hybrid. Triticale is
an example of an allopolyploid, having six chromosome sets, allohexaploid, four from
wheat (Triticum turgidum) and two from rye (Secale cereale). Amphidiploid is another
word for an allopolyploid. Mango and banana are also allopolyploids. Doubled diploids
are known as amphidiploids. Some of the best examples of allopolyploids come from the
Brassicas, the three diploid Brassicas (B. oleracea, B. rapa, and B. nigra) and three
allotetraploids (B. napus and B. juncea).
Problems due to polyploidy and heterozygosity nature of fruit crops
Fruit crops such as mango, banana and citrus pose the problem of polyploidy, and
crops such as mango, papaya and citrus are highly heterozygous. Choosing of polyploid
varieties with desirable qualities may have the hindrance in developing hybrids as
sometimes they exhibit sterility and obtaining a good hybrid may be questionable. In
banana, when tetraploid is crossed with a diploid or triploid the genome of the
segregating population will be unpredictable because of the restitution or unreduced
chromosomes arising from the female parent. Heterozgosity on the other hand, create
more complexity in breeding of mango, papaya and citrus because of wide segregations
in the progenies. Hence, the breeding cycle is extended when compared to self pollinated
crops because in every generation careful selection of progenies is required and high
level of purity has to be maintained in each generation.
Questions
1. Organism having more than two sets of homologous chromosomes is known as a
Polyploid.
Ans: True
2. Give examples for Octaploid crops
Ans:
• Strawberry,
• Dahlia,
• Pansies,
• Sugar Cane
3. Bananas and apples can be found as Autopolyploid.

Ans: True
4. Mango is an example of an Allopolyploid.
Ans: True
5. Heterozygosity is problem in mango, citrus.
Ans: True
Lecture.4
Problems in Fruit Breeding – Polyembryony, Parthenocarpy and Seedlessness
Polyembryony
The phenomenon in which more embryos are present within a single seed is
called polyembryony. It may result due to (a) nucellar embryony e.g., Citrus (b)
development of more than one nucleus within the embryo sac (in addition to the egg
embryo during the early stages of development) leading to multiple embryos (e.g.
conifers).
Occurrence of polyembryony is widespread in all citrus species but the

number of embryos per seed varies from species to species. In rough lemon, it varies
from 3 to 5. In mango certain cultivars are reported to be polyembryonic with the
number of embryos ranging from 2 to 10 and the germination per cent from 40 to 87.
Polyembryonic seedlings can be identified from its true seedlings by their uniformity
and vigorous growth, while the seedling arising from fertilized embryo will be weak.
The greater vigor in polyembryonic nucellar seedlings is probably due to the
elimination of viruses. In mango polyembryony was determined by single dominant
gene (Anon, 1996). In citrus, all the species are polyembryonic in nature except
C.medica (Citron) and C.grandis (Pumelo) which are monoembryonic. Though
nucellar embryony in citrus is of great value for producing vigorous, uniform and
virus free plants, the phenomenon is an obstacle in hybridization. In polyembryonic
cultivars, the vigorous growth of nucellar embryos inhibits the growth of the zygotic
embryo and causes its degeneration prior to seed maturation. Such abortive embryos
can be rescued by tissue culture.
Parthenocarpy and Seedlessness
In the recent years, the consumer preference towards seedless fruits is

increasing among the consumers. The seedless nature of certain fruits is due to the
phenomenon of ‘parthenocapy’ which refers to the development of fruits without
fertilization or even without the stimulus that comes from pollination. Parthenocarpic
fruits are usually seedless but need not be always.
Vegetative parthenocarpy
If a fruit develops even without the stimulus of pollination, then the

phenomenon is referred to as vegetative parthenocarpy (automatic) eg. Banana and
Japanese persimmon.
Stimulative parthenocarpy
If a fruit develops from the mere stimulus of the pollination (but without
fertilization), the phenomenon is known as stimulative parthenocarpy. The female
flowers of triploid watermelon require the pollen grains of diploid varieties to develop
into a seedless fruit. Diploid pollen grain gives a stimulus to the ovary of guava when
self pollinated, which result in the development of parthenocarpic fruit due to the
stimulation provided by pollen hormones. E.g) Thompson Seedless variety of Grapes
and papaya
Steno-spermocarpy
In “Black Corinth” variety of grapes, pollination and fertilization take place
but the embryo gets aborted subsequently resulting in seedlessness. This phenomenon
of development of seedless fruits is referred to as ‘steno-spermocarpy’.
The seedlessness or parthenocarpic fruits are advantageous since there is a

greater preference among the consumers for the seedless fruits of the same kind (e.g.
seedless grapes, guava or oranges). Besides the problem of unfruitfulness due to
pollination failure, sterility and incompatibility may not arise if a fruit develops
parthenocarpically and the grower is assured of good crop (e.g. banana). One
drawback with the seedless fruits is that they are usually small in size (e.g. Black
Corinth variety of grapes) and irregular in shape (guava).
Induction of seedlessness in fruits

The seedlessness can be induced by the following methods.
1. Use of growth regulators
Application of GA at 8000 ppm in lanolin paste on the cut end of the style of
the emasculated flowers of guava resulted in the development of seedless fruits.
Similarly, seedlessness in loquat was induced by spraying GA 100 to 200 ppm on the
emasculated flowers.
2. Changing the ploidy level
It was first demonstrated in Japan that by developing a triploid water melon

2n= 33 by crossing tetraploids x diploid varieties, seedlessness could be achieved.
Naturally available seedless guava varieties are due to auto polyploidy (triploid) and
not due to parthenocarpic fruit development.
Parthenogenesis
In some plants, fruits develop parthenocarpically, still they produce viable
seeds. (e.g. Mangosteen and Strawberry). This phenomenon is referred to as
parthenogenesis. The seedlings of such fruits are genetically uniform. In certain cases,
seeds develop partenogentically but they are non-viable (e.g. Apple) When female
flowers of jack are pollinated with the pollen grains of bread fruit, seeds do form in
jack but they did not germinate as they are non-viable.
Questions
1. Give examples for Vegetative Parthenocarpy Banana.

Ans: True
2. More than one embryos present within a single seed is called Polyembryony.
Ans: True
3. Citrus is an example for nucellar embryony.
Ans: True
4. The development of fruits without fertilization is known as Parthenocapy.
Ans: True
5. Give example for Steno-spermocarpy Grapes.
Ans: True
6. Spraying GA3 100 to 200 ppm on the emasculated flowers induces
seedlessness in loquat.
Ans: True
B. Choose the correct

7. Which one of the following is an example for poly embryony
a) Papaya b) Mango c) Japanese Persimmon d) Apple
Ans: Mango
8. Which one of the following has Parthenogenesis
a) Loquat b) Grape c) Banana d) Mangosteen
Ans: Mangosteen
C. True or False
9. Stimulative parthenocarpy is noticed in papaya.

Ans: True
10. Parthenocarpic fruits are usually seedless.
Ans: True
Lecture.5
Incompatibility and Sterility Systems
Self incompatibility
The barrier between pollination and fertilization in angiosperms is because of the
self-incompatibility, a genetically controlled phenomenon. Self incompatibility is the
inability of functional male and female gametes of the hermaphrodite flowers to set seeds
on self pollination.
Genetic control of self incompatibility
Incompatibility is generally controlled by a special gene at S-locus represented by

multiple allelic series in the population. Each of these alleles control the formation of a
specific substance that determines the incompatibility reactions, both in the pistil and
pollen. Identical substances specified by identical genes in pollen and pistil favour to
prevent fertilization. Based on the timing and mode of S-gene activity, the
incompatibility reaction among homomorphic angiosperm is categorized into two groups.
A. Gametophytic control of pollen reaction.
B. Sporophytic control of pollen reaction.
A. Gametophytic self incompatibility
In this type of incompatibility, pollen is binucleate and pollen behaviour is

determined by the S allele present in each pollen and stigma is wet type. It means the
incompatibility reaction of pollen is determined by its own genotypes, and not by the
genotype of the plant on which it is produced. Generally, incompatibility reaction is
determined by a single gene having multiple alleles. Sometimes, polyploidy may lead to
the loss of incompatibility due to a competition between the two S alleles present in
diploid pollen. Important examples are pineapple, loquat, apple, pear, plum, cherry,
almond, apricot, some citrus and members of Solanaceae family.
1
B. Sporophytic incompatibility
The incompatibility reaction of pollen is governed by the genotype of plant on

which the pollen is produced and not by the genotype of the pollen. It means the
incompatibility is imposed by the maternal genotype, due to that all the pollen grains
from a given plant behave similarly. Incompatibility occurs at the stigmatic surface
resulting in the inhibition of pollen germination. Pollens are trinucleate and the stigmatic
surface is dry e.g. Mangifera indica.
Mechanism of self incompatibility
Based on the various phenomenon observed during pollination and fertilization it

can be grouped into three:
i) Pollen stigma interaction
ii) Pollen tube style interaction
iii) Pollen tube ovule interaction
1) Pollen-stigma interaction
This interaction occurs just after the pollen grains reach the stigma and generally
it prevents pollen germination. In the gametophytic system, stigma surface is plumose
having elongated receptive cells and is commonly known as wet stigma. Incompatibility
reaction occurs at a later stage. There are clear cut serological differences among the
pollen grains with different S genotypes and such differences have not been observed in
sporophytic system.
In sporophytic system, stigma is papillate and dry covered with a hydrated layer
of proteins known as pellicle. There is evidence that the pellicle is involved in
incompatibility reaction. There are striking differences in the stigma antigens related to
the S allele composition. Within few minutes of reaching the stigmatic surface, the pollen
releases exine exudates which are either protein or glycoprotein in nature. This exudate
induces immediate callose formation in papillae (which are in direct contact with the
pollen) of incompatible stigma. Often callose is also deposited on the young protruding
2
pollen tubes preventing any further germination of the pollen. Thus, in the sporophytic
system, stigma is the site of incompatibility reaction. The incompatibility reaction of
pollen is probably due to the deposition of some compounds from anther tapetum on to
the pollen exine.
2) Pollen tube - style interaction
In most of the gametophytic system, pollen grains germinate and pollen tubes
penetrate the stigmatic surface. But, in the incompatible combinations, the growth of
pollen tube is retarded within the stigma.
3) Pollen tube - ovule interaction
In some cases, pollen tube reaches the ovule and affects fertilization. However, in
incompatible combinations, embryo degenerates at early stage of development.
Methods of overcoming self incompatibility
One of the following methods can be used for bringing partial fertility by
temporarily suppressing the incompatibility reaction:
Bud pollination – Application of mature pollens to immature non-receptive stigma
i.e. 1-2 days prior to anthesis.
Surgical technique – Removal of stigmatic surface.
High temperature – Exposure of pistils to temperature up to 60oC
Irradiation – With x rays or γ rays for single locus gametophytic incompatibility.
Double pollination – Incompatible pollen is applied as mixture with compatible
pollen.
Pollination at the end of season
Arora and Singh (1988) observed that in low chilling plum and peach cultivars,
methanol killed the mentor pollen and not helpful in overcoming incompatibility barriers,
however, frozen and thawed mentor pollen (one which, if alive, would be fully
compatible with style receiving it) improved fruit set in both intra and inter specific
incompatibility.
3
In case of sporophytic incompatibility system, the breakdown is comparatively

easy because the incompatibility reaction takes place between stigmatic surface and
pollen wall in comparison to gametophytic incompatibility in which reaction starts when
the pollen tubes have already travelled ⅓ to ½ length of styler tissue (Arora, 1993).
Advantages of self incompatibility

1. Where male sterility is non existent, self incompatibility can alternatively facilitate
the production of F1 hybrids.
2. Self fertility can be induced temporarily or permanently by mutation of S alleles to S1
through artificial irradiation in clonally propagated orchard species like cherry and
apple
3. Seedless varieties, such as in pineapple, grape etc. can be evolved if self
incompatibility is present.
Disadvantages
Variations in seed set due to poor fertility.
Poor preservation of genetic purity of improved varieties since cross pollination is
non-restricted.
Difficulties in development and maintenance of homozygous lines (inbreds) which
can be utilized for hybridization.
Uneven quality of fruits because of mixed planting of different varieties based on
their cross compatibility.
Pollination pattern and incompatibility
Self-incompatible fruit cultivars/species need cross pollination for seed/fruit set
which includes pollen hydration and germination, pollen tube growth into the style to the
ovary, entry into the ovule and embryo sac and release of sperms. Pollination failures
may, thus, create barrenness in the tress which is otherwise completely normal in health
and free from diseases and insect pests. During cross pollination, the sensitive
discriminations have to be made between pollen grain of different genotypes for which
identity of each pollen is needed. The germination of pollen grain and its penetration into
the stylar tissue to reach the embryo sac depends upon acceptability by the pistil which is
selective in nature.
4
Aonla
In aonla, male flowers appear in clusters in the axil of leaf all over the branchlet
while female flowers are on the upper end of a few of these branches. Bajpai (1968)
reported male to female ratio of 307.9:1 and 197:1 in two successive years indicating
marked variation in the expression of sex. The maximum number of male flowers opens
between 6 and 7 PM and dehiscence of anthers starts soon thereafter. The female flowers
open in stages and take 72 hours to open completely and the stigma becomes receptive on
the third day of anthesis. Bajpai (1968) reported that aonla pollen are light and thus the
pollination occurs through wind. There is no self-incompatibility in aonla. The cause of
poor fruit set may be attributed to a high percentage of staminate flowers.
Apple
Lal et al., (1972) found 9 apple cultivars completely and 4 partially self-
incompatible. For Early Shanburry cultivar, Fanny (54-5%), Winter Banana (60.4%) and
Rome Beauty (54.25%) were better pollinizers. In Red Delicious, highest fruit set
occurred with Jonathan (87.5%) cultivars Mclntosh, Rymer, Jonathan and Rome Beauty
set satisfactory crop with self pollen.
Ber
The majority of flowers are borne axillary on current season growth in clusters.
The time of flowering varies in different parts of India. Godara (1981) found that
cultivars Banarsi, Karaka, Mundia, Murhara, Reshmi, Sandhura, Narnaul, Safeda,
Umran, Ilaichi and kakrola were self- incompatible and Umran was found to be the best
pollen recipient as well as pollen donor. Being sticky, the pollen is transferred mainly by
honey bees. Many flowers do not get pollinated at critical stages of gynoecium
receptivity and drop off because of a short receptivity period.
Citrus
Pollen development is normal in citrus except in a few cultivars like Navel
oranges, Satsuma mandarin and lime which have no viable pollen. In cultivars with
abundant pollen, self-pollination occurs but in mixed plantings of different cultivars,
cross pollination is not uncommon. The stigma remains receptive for 6-8 days. Honey
bees are the known pollinating agents. Self-incompatibility has been reported in
pummelo, sweet lime and lemon.
5
Fig
It is a gynodioecious species. The Capri fig is monoecious while common fig is
pistillate. The figs commonly grown in India are parthenocarpic and do not require
pollination. In other countries, generally Capri figs (wild figs) are planted as pollinizers
with the commercial cultivars. The cultivars Pune, Black Ischia and Brown Turkey were
reported to be Parthenocarpic from Kodur while Turkish White failed to set fruits without
caprification.
Grape
Most vinifera cultivars have perfect flowers that have both functional pistil and
stamens. Some species of grapes (V.rotundifolia) are dioecious. Berry set results from
pollination, fertilization and seed development. Some cultivars like Black Corianth set
by stimulative parthenocarpy and in others like Perlette, Beauty Seedless, Pusa Seedless,
Delight, and Thompson Seedless stenospermocarpy occurs.
Self pollination is the rule in vinifera grapes. However, cross pollination is also
possible and is desirable under certain conditions.
Guava
Cross pollination is the rule in guava. However, Singh Sehgal (1968) found that
self pollination was also predominant and that the possibility of open pollination cannot
be ruled out. Under open pollination, Allahabad Safeda had the highest fruit set of 85.5
per cent in spring and 84.4 per cent in rainy seasons, while cultivar Sardar reorded 83.3
and 82.2 per cent fruit set respectively. Under self pollination, Allahabad Safeda
recorded 67.7 per cent fruit set in spring and 66.6 per cent in rainy seasons.
Jackfruit
In the tropics, flowering and fruiting are continuous throughout the year in the
terminal leaf axil of leader and lateral shoots. There appears to be no regular sequence in
the incidence of male and female inflorescences. Although they are similar during early
development, the female is later distinguished by a thicker peduncle and a large annular
disc at the anthesis, but later emerged males are smaller. Sharma (1964) reported a high
degree of sterility with some fruits having 12,000 flowers producing only five fully
developed segments surrounded by 448 aborted flowers. They also noted partial seed
development, suggesting that some might have occurred after fertilization.
6
Mango
The panicles bear male and perfect flowers and the cross pollination is mainly
done by the house fly. The number of perfect flowers per panicle varies between 1000
and 6000. Uniform cross pollination of cultivars Dashehari, Langra and Bombay Green
with the pollen of Totapari and of Bombay Green with that of Langra and Chausa,
Dashehari and Totapari and of Bombay Green indicated that in nature about 50 per cent
of perfect flowers remain unpollinated, stigma remains receptive from one day prior to
anthesis with a maximum on the day of anthesis and that fruit set is generally improved
by mixed pollination.
Male sterility
Male sterility is characterized by non-functional pollen grains, while female

gametes are functional. Male sterility can be classified into three groups viz., genetic
male sterility, cytoplasmic male sterility, and cytoplasmic genetic male sterility.
(a) Genetic male sterility
Like any other morphological traits, particularly mono and oligogenic, this type of
male sterility occurs in plant due to mutation of the fertility locus, situated on
chromosomes within the nucleus. In this case, cytoplasm is not involved in bringing the
sterility. There could be three possible genotypes for this locus and only one of them is
male sterile.
Fertile (R-line) = RR
Fertile (B-line) = Rr
Sterile (A-line) = rr
Sterility maintenance
By crossing AxB lines, sterile and fertile progenies are produced in equal
proportions. For the maintenance of sterile line, the fertile plants need to be quickly
removed before the shedding of the pollen grains. The fertile plants can be removed in
early stage of plant growth by using marker gene.
7
Fertility restoration
Fertile lines can be obtained by crossing A-line with R-line. It can be used in
hybrid seed production and genetical studies or for the preservation of variability.
(b) Cytoplasmic male sterility
It occurs due to the mutation of mitochondria or to due to some other cytoplasmic

factors outside the nucleus, resulting in the transformation of the fertile cytoplasm into a
sterile one. Nuclear genes are not involved. Further, with two types of cytoplasm i.e.
sterile and fertile, at the most, only two kinds of genotypes are possible, one of them is
sterile and another fertile. The fertile cytoplasm is denoted by (F – B Line) and sterile
cytoplasm is denoted by (f – A line).
Due to two different types of genotypes, cytoplasmic sterility can be maintained

as under:
Since there is no third type of genotype which can act as R-line, as such
restoration of fertility is not feasible. However, this does not exhaust all the possibilities
of use of cytoplasmic sterile lines.
Uses
As restoration is not possible, this type of sterility is useful only in crops where
the seed is not the desired end product. This is important for horticultural crops where
vegetative parts are of economic value.
(c) Cytoplasmic-geneic male sterility
Such sterility arises from the interaction of nuclear gene(s) and conditioning
sterility with sterile cytoplasm. The cytoplasmi-geneic sterility is essentially a
cytoplasmic sterility with a provision for restoration of fertility. The fertility is restored
by (R) gene present in the nucleus. The combination of both nuclear gene(s) and
8
cytoplasmic factors determine the fertility or sterility in such plants. Based on these
combinations, there can be maximum of six types of genotypes and only one of them is
sterile.
As visualized by their genetic composition and cytoplasm, only [(rr) f] genotype

can maintain the sterility of A-line.
This is achieved by suitable restorer lines which can give rise to all fertile
progenies on crossing with A-line. Among the possible six genotypes, only [(RR) F] and
[(RR) r] are such restorer or R-line. They produce all fertile progenies.
Uses
Cytoplasmic-genetic male sterile lines are of immense importance in exploitation

of hybrid vigour in crops where seed is the desired end product.
Questions
1. Incompatibility is generally controlled by a special gene is known as S-locus.

Ans: True
2. Gametophytic self incompatibility pollen is binucleate.
Ans: True
3. Pineapple is an example for gametophytic self incompatibility.
Ans: True
4. Stigma is covered with hydrated layer of proteins is known as Pellicle.
Ans: True
5. The incompatibility reaction of pollen is due to deposition of some compounds from
anther tapetum on to the pollen exine.
Ans: True
9
Lecture.6
Apomixis – merits and demerits, types
Apomixis
Apomixis refers to the occurrence of an asexual reproductive process in the place

of normal sexual processes involving reduction division and fertilization. In other words,
apomixis is a type of reproduction in which sexual organs of related structures take part
but seeds are formed without union of gametes. Seeds formed in this way are of
vegetative in origin. When apomixis is the only method of reproduction in a plant
species, it is known as obligate apomixes. On the other hand, if gameic and apomictic
reproductions occur in the same plant, it is known as facultative apomixes. The first
discovery of this phenomenon is credited to Leuwenhock as early as in 1719 in Citrus
seeds.
Apomixis is widely distributed among higher plants. More than 300 species
belonging to 35 families are apomictic. It is most common in Gramineae, Compositae,
Rosaceae and Rutaceae.
Classification of Apomixis
Recurrent apomixis
The embryo sac (female gametophyte) develops from the megaspore mother cell
whether meiosis is disturbed (sporogenesis failed) or from adjoining cell (megaspore
mother cell disintegrates). The egg cell is diploid and embryo develops directly from the
diploid egg cell without fertilization. Generally, somatic apospory, diploid
parthernogenesis and diploid apogamy fall under recurrent apomixis.
Example: Rubus sp. (Raspberry), Malus hupehensis, Malus sikkimensis, Malus sargenti
and Malus toringoides (Mitra (1991), Vashishtha et al., (2004))
on-recurrent apomixis
The development of embryo takes place from haploid egg cell without
fertilization. Such type of apomixis rarely occurs. Generative apospory, haploid
parthenogenesis, haploid apogamy and androgamy fall under this category.
Adventive embryony
This is also known as nucellar embryony or polyembryony. In this case more than
one embryo develops in a single seed. In the seed both types of embryo develops i.e.
nucellar embryo from nucellar cell and zygotic embryo from egg cell with the result of
syngamy.
Example: Mango cvs. Olour, Goa, Kurukkan, Bappakai, Vellaikolamban,

Nileswar Dwarf, Salem, Bellary, Goakasargod, Mazagaon, Chandrakaran etc.
(Majumder and Sharma,1991) and most of the species of citrus except Citrus medica
(citron), Citrus grandis (Pummelo or Shaddock) and Citrus latifolia (Ghosh, 1991,
Vashishtha et al,2004.)
Vegetative apomixis
This is not common in fruit crops. However, in some cases like Poa bulbosa and
some Allium, Agave and grass species vegetative buds or bulbils are produced instead
of flower in the inflorescence.
Development of apomictic embryo sac
Apospory
It involves the development of embryo sac either from the archesporial cell or
from the nucellus, or from other cell. It is of two types:
(i) Generative or haploid apospory: If the embryo sac develops from one of the
megaspores (n), the process is called generative or haploid apospory. Since it
cannot regenerate, as it is haploid and fertilization fails, the process gives rise
to non-recurrent apomicts.
2
(ii) Somatic or diploid apospory: When diploid embryo sac is formed from nucellus
or other cells, the process is termed as somatic or diploid apospory. Since it
regenerates without fertilization, it is recurrent.
Parthenogenesis
It can be defined as development of embryo from egg cell with or without

pollination but without fertilization. Depending upon the ploidy levels of egg cell,
parthenogenesis can be haploid (non-recurrent) or diploid (recurrent type) e.g.
Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana).
Apogamy
Development of embryo from synergids or antipodal cells within the embryo sac
with or without pollination but without fertilization is termed as apogamy. This type
of apomixis is also grouped into haploid and diploid apogamy depending upon the
ploidy level of cell. Diploid apogamy is recurrent type whereas, haploid aopgamy is
non-recurrent type.
Androgamy
Development of the embryo from male gametes inside or outside the embryo sac
is known as androgamy. Since the cells are haploid in nature they, come under non
recurrent type.
Genetics of apomixis
Stebbins (1958) stated that as a rule, the apomictic condition is recessive to

sexuality, although polyploidy apomicts show tendency towards dominance.
However, this recessiveness is not usually due to a monogenic difference. Since there
is frequent reversion of apomicts to normal sexuality or sterility or the occurrence of
some abnormal genetic behavior in crosses involving an apomictic and an amphimict
increases involving or two apomicts of diverse origins, it appears that a successful
apomictic cycle is the result of an interaction of many genes which tend to break on
hybridization. It is only in the relatively simple type of apomixis like adventive
3
embryony and vegetative reproduction that simple genetic behavior can be expected.
Recently, Vardy et al. (1989) recorded three recessive genes with additive effects
which are responsible for parthenocarpy.
Advantages of apomixis in plant breeding
Apomicts tend to conserve the genetic structure of their carrier and are also
capable of maintaining the advantages of heterozygote generation after generation.
Therefore, such a mechanism might offer a great advantage in plant breeding where
genetic uniformity maintained over generation for homozygosity (in varieties of selfers),
and heterozygosity (in hybrids of both selfers and out breeders) is the choicest goal.
Additionally, apomixes may also affect an efficient exploitation of maternal influence, if
any, reflecting in the resultant progenies, early or delayed because it causes perpetuation
of the only maternal properties due to prohibition of fertilization. Maternal effects are
most common in horticultural crops, particularly fruit trees and ornamental plants.
Exploitation of apomixis in crop improvement
For exploiting the apomixes in sexual crops, the apomictic phenomenon occurring
spontaneously in any plant needs to be detected or identified. The artificial incorporation
could be perhaps through hybridization between apomixes and amphimicts.
Detection of apomixis
Positive evidence for the presence or absence of apomixis are obtained only from
an intensive screening of a large number of plant varieties / hybrids. The screening
involves a careful and systematic tracing of steps for the development of embryosac and
embryo, through microtomy of ovule, right from megaspores to embryonic development.
Therefore, it is the most tedious job requiring patience and persistence.
It should however, be noted that it is only the recurrent apomixis, namely diploid
forms of apospory/parthenogenesis/apogamy/adventitive embryony and the vegetative
propagation which are beneficial for plant breeding purposes. The simple reason being
that it is these diploid forms, which produce viable diploids without fertilization and thus
can continue to perpetuate truly over generations. Non-recurrent apomixis is of academic

importance only.
Maintenance and transfer of apomixis
Once an apomict plant is detected, its inheritance pattern may be studied through
crossing a few sample flowers with the pollen obtained from normal plants and observing
the segregation pattern in F2 and subsequent generations. The remaining flowers may
thoroughly be checked and seeds collected on maturity. The true apomictic plant will
automatically produce mother apomictic progenies, which can be maintained without
difficulty.
In respect of transfer of apomixis, substantial evidence is available for the hybrid

origin of many of the apomicts. Nevertheless, there is no evidence at all the hybridization
by itself can induce apomixis. Situation is further aggravated by the unstable nature of
apomicts since there is every like hood of the breaking down of interacting gene
complexes conditioning apomixis. Therefore, possibilities of introducing apomixis in
non-apomicts are the least but not totally absent.
Questions
1. Asexual reproductive process is known as apomixes.
Ans: True
2. Rosebery fruit is an example for recurrent apomixes.
Ans: True
3. The development of embryo takes place from haploid egg cell without fertilization is
known as Non-recurrent apomixes.
Ans: True
4. Development of the embryo from male gametes inside or outside of embryo sac is
known as Androgamy.
Ans: True
5. More than one embryo develops in a single seed is known as Adventive embryony.
Ans:True
6. Development of embryo from synergids or antipodal cells within the embryo sac
is known as Apogamy.
Ans: True
7. What are the types of apomixes?
Lecture.7
Variability, Germplasm and Its Significances
India is the home for important fruit species Artocarpus heterophyllus, Citrus
indica, c.latipes, Feronia limonia, Garcinia indica, Manilkara hexandra. Mangifera
indica, Musa species (AB, AAB group), Syzygium cumini and Zizyphus mauritiana
(Arora, 1987). The Hindustan centre is one of the 8 to 12 regions of genetic diversity
(Vavilov, 1949/1950) having linkage/contiguity with Central Asian, Indo-Chinese-
Indonesian and Chinese – Japanese regions. As many as 190 species of economic
importance are indigenous to the Indian gene centre of which 109 are fruits (Arora
and Nayar, 1984).
Considerable genetic material came from the Mediterranean, African, tropical

American and temperate regions and quite a few of these have become commercially
important. Several of these introductions are useful for improving productivity and
quality and for inducing resistance against biotic and abiotic stresses in the indigenous
commercial cultivars and for use as rootstocks and pollinizers. Thus, in the past,
activities concerning germplasm introduction, collection and utilization occurred as an
adjunct to changes in historical and demographic events and were never followed as
systematic pursuits. A few efforts to conserve the germplasm resources, e.g. Lakha
Bagh established by Akbar at Darbhanga and gardens established during the British
rule, at Saharanpur, Pune and Howrah in the plains and at Chaubattia in the hills, were
also made owing to the fancy of the ex-rulers, nonetheless these proved very
rewarding. Genetic resources activities got a boost with the establishment of a Plant
Introduction Division in the Indian Agricultural Research. The ICAR Institutes
particularly the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, Indian Institute of
Horticultural Research, Bangalore and the Central Institute of Horticulture for
Northern Plains, Lucknow and the State Agricultural Universities have also
contributed greatly
Variability
Variability in regions
Although there are nine phytogeographical regions in India, twenty-nine
centres of endemism have been recognised. These are: (i) Agasthyamalai hills in
1
South Kerala and Tamil Nadu, (ii) Idduki-Sulahsiri forests, (iii) Anamalais, (iv)
Nilgiris, (v) Agumbe-Phonde, (vi) Mahabaleshwar, (vii) Ratnagiri and Colaba, (viii)
Saurashtra- Kutch, (ix) Tirupati-Cuddappa, (x) Nallamalais, (xi)Vizagapatnam hills,
(xii) Bastar and Koraput hills, (xiiii) Similipal and Jeypore hill forests, (xiv)
Chotangpur plateau, (xv) Panchmarhi-Satpura ranges, (xvi) Marathwada, (xvii)
Bundelkhand, (xviiii) Aravalli, (xix) Ladakh, (xx) Valley of Flowers and Kedarnath,
(xxi) The Nandaevi, (xxii) Sikkim Himalayas, (xxiiii) Lalichopri, (xxiv) Namdapha,
(xxv) Tura-Khasia range, (xxvi) Nagaland-Manipur-Mizoram (Lushai hills),
(xxvii)North Andamans, (xxviiii) South Andamans and (xxix) the Great Nicobar
Islands. These centres fall into four broad regions of genetic diversity, i.e., North-
Eastern region, Western and Eastern Ghats, Western Himalayas, northern and Indo-
Gangetic Plains. Rich diversity in the North-Eastern region occurs in citrus, mango
and banana (Arora and Nayar, 1984: Ghosh, 1984).
Variability in Fruits
Several fruit species of at least 20 genera, such as Artocarpus, Carissa, Citrus,

Diospyros, Emblica, Ficus, Grewia, Juglans, Mangifera, Musa, Morus, Prunus,
Punica, Pyrus, Ribes, Rubus, Syzygium, Vitis and Zizyphus offer great variability in
India
Banana
Maximum genetic variability of Musa acuminata and M .balbisiana occur in

North-East India. M. flaviflora is localized to Manipur and Meghalaya. There are
several other species in North Bengal, Sikkim, Khasi hills and on Western Ghats
which need systematic collection and conservation.
Citrus
Being the home of several Citrus species, rich genetic diversity occurs in the
North-Eastern, North-Western and Southern regions, the maximum concentration
being in the North-Eastern region. Bhattacharya and Dutta (1956) described 17 Citrus
species, their 52 cultivars and a few probable natural hybrids from this region. In
rough lemon alone, as many as 32 strains are available. The species, C.limon, C.
medica, C.jambhiri, C.ichangensis, C.latipes, C.macroptera, C.assamensis, C. Indica
2
and C.aurantium are considered indigenous to this region. The Indian wild orange,
C.indica, is found in the Naga hills (near Dimapur), Garo hills of Meghalaya and
Kaziranga forests in Assam.
Grape
There is lot of indigenous germplasm of grape in India. Hooker (1875), in

Flora of British India, mentioned as many as 75 species of Vitis in India. Hayes
(1975) mentioned four species occurring in the foothills of Himalayas from Kashmir
to Burma which give edible fruits. Wild species of grape are also available in the
khandala hills near Pune on Western Ghats. Andamans, Chotanagpur Plateau, Jammu
and Himachal Pradesh (Kinnaur) are also considered prominent variability centres.
Mango
Rich variability in mango is present all over the country. Wild forms of
Mangifera indica have existed in peninsular tract, evergreen forests, North-East
region and in Terai ranges. Tribal areas at the junctions of Madhya Pradesh, Andhra
Pradesh and Orissa. Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Rajasthan; and South Tamil Nadu
and Kerala are some prominent centres. Some Mangifera species are native to North-
East India, Tripura, Manipur, Mizoram, South Assam, Chotanagpur Plateau,
Rajmahal hills and Andamans. Wild forms of M.indica and its allied species
M.sylvatica occur in the forests of North-East region. The fossil leaf impressions of
M. pentandra have been recovered in Assam. Mukherjee (1985) has reported that at
least six out of 41 Mangifera speices are native to India.
Other Fruits
There is a lot of variability in several other fruits all over the country. Several
speices of ber are found in Peninsular tract, Western and Eastern Ghats; Phoenix and
Ficus species in North-Eastern region; Indian gooseberry in Northern subtropical
plains; tamarind in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh; custard apple in
Andhra Pradesh; date palm in Kachchh; jackfruit in Eastern and Southern India; and
pome and stone fruits in temperate region.
In temperate region, Amygdalus, Carya, Castanea, Corylus, Cotoneaster,

Cydonia, Docynia, Juglans, Malus, Persea, Pistacia, Prunus and Pyrus are available
3
(Chadha, 1978). In the North-Eastern region also, rich diversity occurs in Pyrus,
Rubus, Ribes and Prunus (Kaul, 1987). The Shillong plateau of Khasi hills in
Meghalaya has many Prunus species, such as P.nepalensis, P.undulata and
P.cerasoides.
A rich wealth of 17 wild and less known species of edible fruits exists in India
out of a total of 337 species in the world
Germpalsm collection and its significance
The plant genetic resources constitute a reservoir of genes and gene complexes
and are the raw materials for improvement of horticultural crops. The richness of
species and genetic diversity in horticultural crops provided many opportunities,
which can be achieved with adoption of more rational, science based and pragmatic
approaches. There has been a significant progress in collection, conservation and
utilization of genetic resources of horticultural crops. The concerted efforts made in
past have yielded results and large number of varieties.
Surveys to collect elite germplasm for genetic improvement of fruit crops by

the Institutions is primarily confined to their respective areas of operation. However,
these attempts have been mostly sporadic. Surveys to exploit the indigenous diversity
has now been realised particularly because of the threat of genetic erosion. In India, it
is estimated that 10 per cent of about 5000 endemic flowering plant species, i.e. 1700
species, are so threatened (Nayar, 1987). The National Bureau of Plant Genetic
Resources organised crop-specific explorations with inter-institutional collaboration
in pre-identified regions known to have rich diversity.
Banana
India harbours a great diversity in banana and plantain which can cater to any
need, be it for fruit industry, vegetable industry, flower industry or even leaf Industry.
They form a market worth several billions across the globe. With systematic efforts
on understanding their specific utilities, many of the lesser known varieties, especially
the land races can be exploited. The real strength of the country lies not only in
exploiting the commercial varieties, but also in thinking differently and exploiting the
untapped potential of this crop. Seeded landraces Ladiarit, Ladison, Rigitchi and other
4
elite types Hatigola, Eboke, Ginde, Egitchi and Essing from Meghalaya landraces
mostly belonging to balbisiana (BB group) having resistance to drought cold and
frost, M.cheesmani and M. velutina, from Arunachal Pradesh, banana varieties
Kulprit, Safri, Anatur and Dingamanika from Cachar and Jaintia hills and landraces
Palayakodan, Kallur, Nayoodyan, Koombodiayan, Annarkanan and Katu from North
Kerala and Betta-bale, Putta – bale, Karibale, Bergi-bale, Sungathi-bale, Rasa-bale,
Pachcha-bale, Gujar-bale and Raja-bale from Karnataka have been reported.
Citrus
The number of Citrus accessions worldwide is listed to be 6000 inclusive of

wild species, old cultivars, advanced cultivars, and breeding lines. Globally a total of
33 genera and 224 species of Citrus and its wild relatives (Aurantioides subfamily)
are reported which can be used for its improvement. Citrus and its relatives of
subfamily Aurantioideae are considered native of South-east Asia, North-east India,
South China and North Myanmar have been acclaimed to the primitive centres of
origin of contemporary Citrus species. The genus Eremocitrus and Microcitrus are
found in Australia, Clymenia in New Guinea, Poncirus and Fortunella distributed in
China and genus Citrus distributed in India, China, Myanmar and Malaysia. In India,
Citrus types Mimangnarang, Chinora and Sohkwit of C.macroptera, Sohsyng of
C.assamensis, Sohkhyllah (a natural hybrid), Sohmyngor of C.grandis and Sohsien, a
vermillion coloured C.reticulata from Meghalaya (Anon., 1986), wild types
resembling pummelo, orange, lemon and limes such as Rebab, Tahi, Tanyum,
Sohmiag, Riang, Pinch-Tasing, Pinchipunia, Sikiang-Tasing Sipa-egra from
Arunachal Pradesh (Anon., 1987) were found to occur.
Jackfruit
Jackfruit types Varikka, Kooza, Navarikka/Pazam Varikka, Rudrakshachakka

or Thamarachakkal (Kooza + Varikka) and other wild forms have been collected
from Wynaad Plateau in Western Ghats of Kerala. Three types, Rasdar, Khajwa and
Sugandhi were identified in the plains of eastern UP.
Mango
From Orissa, regular bearing Paushia, scented Haldibas, bunch bearing

Seetabhog, flavoured Topisundari, Baunia, Karpurkeli, other elite types Belgaja,
Theki, Chanamunda, Mahorajpasand, Manda, Sagarlangra types having bright
coloured fruits such as Lal Sundari, Sinduri, Beta Sundari, Goba Sundari,
Sundarimath and Ashokgaja; types having good taste, such as Swarnalata, Chandrama
and Sasgulla; and Khoja, having fruits with long shelf life , potential commercial
cultivars Agna-Kosha, Sunehari Udyan Sundari, Lahsun, Kachhaswadi, Dahipatti and
Lungagudi; and rootstock types Thurri and Gurudi have been collected. A dwarf and
late maturing mango cultivar, Moreh, collected from Manipur bears very sweet fruits
with high pulp content within two years after planting and is free from stone weevil
(Anon., 1989-90). Promising types Ladankoo, Heer, Anphus, Meenakshi, Avadh-ki-
Shaam, Makhsoos, Jalmorni, Shareefa, Dilpasand, Nashpati, Kakran, Pukhraj,
Sharbati, Bagrain, Sahib Pasand and a pickling mango bearing 25-40 fruits in a cluster
have been selected from the variability existing in western UP
Other Fruits
Some wild edible temperate fruits such as Sorbus cuspidata, Malus baccata,
Pyrus pashia, Prunus cornuta, Punica granatum, Juglans regia and Ribes himalense
from Kumaon hills walnut, hazel nut, P.cornuta, apple, pear, Rosa sp., Crataegus,
Rubus and Corylus colurna from Pangi variety and Elaegnus, Prunus, Docynia and
Pyrus from khasi hills in Meghalaya have been collected.
Questions
1. Grape fruits are native to India.

Ans:False
2. Maximum genetic variability of Musa acuminata and M .balbisiana occur in
South-East India.
Ans:False
3. Balbisiana (BB group) having resistance to drought and cold and frost.
Ans:True
4. There are nine regions in phytogas graphical India.
Ans: True
6
Lecture.8
Breeding strategies - clonal selection
Clone
A clone is a group of plants produced exclusively from a single individual plant
through asexual reproduction. Most of the fruit plants are propagated asexually which
consist of large number of clones that is why these plants are known as a group of plants
derived from a single plant by vegetative means. In other words all the vegetative
progenies of a single plant make a clone.
Characteristics
Clones are stable- They retain their original traits just like pure line variety
Theoretically clones are immortal i.e. A clone can be maintained indefinitely by

asexual reproduction. However, these are very much susceptible to diseases or
insect pests depending upon the species and cultivars.
Homogeneous-Individual plant of a clone is a mitotic derivative of the same plant

and therefore homogeneity in phenotype is the major feature of clones. A group of
individual plants derived from the same tissue of the original mother plant carries
the same genotype. Phenotypic variation if any in clones is due to environmental
impact.
Continuous inbreeding of clones which are heterozygous might lead to severe loss
in vigour
The phenotype of a clone is due to effect of gene (G), environment (E) and GxE
interaction over the population mean (h). Therefore P=h+G+E+GE
Clones are maintained by asexual reproduction, but pure lines and inbreds are
maintained by self-pollination or close inbreeding
Genetic variation within clones
Genetic variation within clones may be due to mutation, mechanical mixture and
sexual reproduction.
a. Mutation
Somatic mutations are also known as bud mutations. The frequency of mutations
is generally very low. A mutant allele would be homozygous only when (i) both the
alleles in the cell mutate at the same time producing the same mutant allele, or (ii) the
mutant allele is already in the heterozygous condition in the original clone. Dominant bud
mutations express themselves more frequently than the recessive ones, as recessive
mutation get expressed only under homozygous conditions. Bud mutations often produce
chimeras, i.e., individuals containing cells of two or more genotypes. However, it is not a
great problem because normal plants, i.e., non chimeras, may be produced from chimeras
by several techniques.
b. Mechanical mixture
Mechanical mixture produces genetic variation within a clone, similar to the
manner as seen in pure lines.
c. Sexual reproduction
Occasional sexual reproduction leads to segregation and recombination. The

seedlings obtained from sexual reproduction are genotypically different from the asexual
progeny.
Clonal degeneration
The loss in vigour and productivity of clones with the passing of time is known as
clonal degeneration and it may be due to mutation and infection of virus and bacteria.
Clonal selection
The phenotypic value of a plant or a clone is due to its genotype (G), the
environment (E) and the genotype x environment interaction (GE). Of these, only the G
effects are heritable and stable. Therefore, a selection for quantitative characters based on
single plant observation may not hold good.
A selection for polygenic characters like yield on the basis of unreplicated clonal
plots would also often be misleading and unreliable. The value of clone can be reliably
estimated only through replicated yield trials. However, selection for highly heritable
characters, such as plant height, days to flowering, colour, disease resistance, etc., is easy
and effective even on the basis of single plant or plot.
The various steps involved in clonal selection are briefly described below and are
depicted.
Select plants of superior

clones
I year
II year Evaluate selected clones

separately
select desirable clones
III year Preliminary yield trial with
suitable check and selected

outstanding clones.
IV year to Multilocation trial with

VIII year Standard checks and
Release of superior clones
as new varieties
IX Year * * * * * * * * * * * * Superior and outstanding clone
* * * * * * * * * * * * released as new Variety, Large

scale multiplication
* * * * * * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * * * * *
3
First year: From a mixed variable population, a few hundred to few thousand desirable
plans are selected. A rigid selection can be done for simply inherited characters with high
heritability. Plants with obvious weakness are eliminated. In fruit plants, it is difficult to get large
number of individual selections. In such case, few plants may be selected.
Second Year: Clones from the selected plants are grown separately, generally without
replication. This is because of the limitation in propagation material in each clone, and also
because of the large number of clones involved. The characteristics of clones will be clear now
than in the previous generation when the observations were based on single plant. The inferior
clones are eliminated at this stage. The selection is based on visual observation and on the
breeder’s judgment of the value of clones. Fifty to one hundred clones are selected on the basis of
clonal characteristics.
Third year: Replicated preliminary yield trial is conducted. A suitable check is included
for comparison. Few superior performing clones with desirable characteristics are selected for
multi location trials. At this stage, selection for quality is done. If necessary, separate disease
nurseries may be planted to evaluate disease resistance of the selected clones.
Fourth to Seventh years: Replicated yield trials are conducted at several locations along
with a suitable check. The yielding ability, quality and disease resistance etc. of the clones are
rigidly evaluated. The best clones that are superior to the check in one or more characteristics are
identified for release as varieties.
#ineteenth year: The superior clones are multiplied and released as varieties.
Advantages
i) Clonal selection is an easy and less time consuming method.
ii) Easy maintenance because there is no problem of out crossing and loss of seed
viability. Variation occurs due to somatic mutation only which can be managed
by removal of undesired plants.
iii) Heterotic clones on selection may be used as permanent hybrids. Heterosis can be
exploited for longer time without production of hybrid seed every year (for
vegetatively propagated vegetable crops).
iv) Clonal selection is the only method of breeding in vegetatively propagated fruit
plants.
4
Limitations
There is limited chance of getting new and useful type of variability
The multiplication rate is low.
It is only useful for vegetatively propagated plants.
Hybridization between clones
Generally, clonal crops are cross-pollinated and they may show self incompatibility. The
selected parents may be used to produce single crosses involving two parents or an equivalent of
a polycross involving more than two parents (rubber).
Selection among F1 families: When the breeding value of parents is not known, and
when the relative contribution of general combining ability and specific combining ability is not
available, then a large number of crosses have to be made in order to ensure that at least some of
the crosses would produce outstanding progenies in F1. This is particularly true in a species where
crop improvement has not been done or has been done at a small scale. In such cases, it would be
cumbersome to evaluate a large number of F1 progenies generally in detail. To avoid this, small
samples of several F1 populations are generally grown. The general value of individual F1
families or populations is estimated noted. Inferior families are eliminated. Promising families
with outstanding individuals are then grown at a much larger scale for selection. The procedure is
designed to save time, space and labor by planting only small populations of a large number of
crosses at the preliminary stage.
Selection within F1 families: The selection procedure within F1 families is essentially the
same as that in the case of clonal selection.
But in the case of fruit and plantation crops like cashew, it is difficult to follow the above
steps. In these perennial crops, the steps given below may be followed:
Step I: Select two parents of desirable characters and hybridize them to produce sufficient
crossed fruits.
Step II: Raise the F1 seedling populations and evaluate the individual progenies for yield and
quality.
Step III: Select few superior progenies and propagate them vegetatively to produce
grafts/budding on standard rootstocks.
Step IV: Evaluate the selected clonal seedling progenies (in sufficient number / clone usually
minimum of 5-10) along with the parents and standard varieties.
Step V: Outstanding clones may be released as new variety.
As step I to V take at least 20-25 years, some breeders avoid step I and IV. Instead, best
performing F1 progenies are assessed and the scion collected from them is multiplied as grafts /
budlings for further use as next varieties.
Achievements
Clone No.51 from Dashehari, MA-1 from Alphanso, Tommy Atkin from Haden.
Pusa Surya from Elden in mango, Pusa Seedless from Thompson Seedless of grape etc.
Questions
1. Clone is a group of plants produced from a single individual plant through asexual
reproduction.
Ans:True
2. Clones are maintained by asexual reproduction.
Ans:True
3. Somatic mutations are also known as bud mutations.
Ans:True
4. The loss in vigour and productivity of clones with the passing of time is known as
clonal degeneration.
Ans:True
5. The seedlings obtained from sexual reproduction are genotypically uniform from the
asexual progeny.
Ans:False
6. Sudden heritable change in the genotype of an organism is termed as mutation.
Ans:True
7. What are the types of mutation?

8. Mutated individual is called as a mutant.
Ans:True
9. What are the different kind of mutations?
10. Micro mutations are more important for direct use in plant breeding.
Ans: True
11. A group of changes at individual loci (point) is called as Point mutation.
Ans:True
Lecture.9
Breeding strategies - bud mutations and chimeras
Bud mutations
If mutation occurs in any one of the actively dividing meristematic tissues, the
branch arising from them, expresses the mutant character if it is dominant and this
phenomenon is known as bud mutation .Though mutation is most frequent at maturation
divisions, it may also arise in somatic cells. If mutation occurs in cells from which buds
are developed, the later are genetically different from the rest of the plant. These are
termed “bud mutation” or “sports”. The frequency of such mutations is very low to be of
any economic importance, which is also different in different species. The bud mutation
may arise through (1) gene mutation or (2) chromosomal variation. Bud variations have
been noted in sugarcane. This was first noted by Lorzier in Mauritius in 1869.
Other instances of sporting are Ribbon canes of Australia, Truna canes of

Mauritius and Tip canes of Hawaii which are found to throw bud variations. Barber
(1906) noted bud sports in the sugarcane at Samalkota. Striped-Mauritius often sported
into green canes and less often into red types. The bud sports not only varied in the
colours on rind but also in some of the agricultural characters. Bud sports are frequent in
ornamental plants and many new garden varieties have been established by selection of
such sports. Economic types from bud sports in the case of field crops are rare. Though
bud sports have been noted in crops like potato, they have not been found to be of
economic type. Superior varieties in citrus have been evolved by selecting bud mutant. It
is reported that in 18 years prior to 1937, about 10 million buds of varieties which
originated by bud mutation have been sold in California alone. Robertson Navel orange
and Dawn grape fruit are some notable examples of new varieties arising through bud
mutation.
Somatic mutations
These mutations occur in tissues other than the germ track. Most mutations occur
somatically, i.e., after the differentiation has set in, when a group of somatic cells is
genotypically different from the other cells in the same individual, a somatic mutation
may be suspected. The change occurs in the cells of the growing body. Hence the new
types of cells are not only heterozygous but form a patch. In meristematic tissues of
axillary buds and others a mutation often leads to a batch with new characters. Such
changes occur more frequently in polyploidy and heterozygous plants and in individuals
which have been grown for long as clones. If propagated vegetatively the mutated parts
give rise to new types of plants. This practice is common in horticulture.
The brown colour of the grain in sorghum in some cases is determined by the
persistence of the integument in which, the colour is deposited. Often mutant patches of
white occur in individual grains of panicles from homozygous brown grained line.
Anatomical studies have shown the suppression of the integument in such places where
the white patch appears and genetical studies have shown that this is only affecting the
somatic tissue and does not affect the germinal tissues. White grain colour is recessive to
brown. In Cosmos sulphureus, plants with yellow petals have often been observed to
appear suddenly; the usual one has orange-yellow coloured petals. Sometimes the region
affected is half the head and, in such cases, in the progeny, plants with all yellow flowers
have appeared. These have bred true. Somatic mutations have been recorded in
vegetatively propagated plants like apples, dahlias, chrysanthemum, potato, rose, etc.
Chimeras
A chimera is an individual with one genotype in some of its parts and another genotype
in the others. Somatic mutation may often lead to chimeras. When propagated asexually
these chimeras may become perpetual. Certain types of Pelargoniums and potatoes are of
such chimeras. When growth is encouraged from the concealed tissues the real nature of
these chimeras is revealed. Somatic mutations either at the terminal or axillary buds in
germinating seeds, seedlings or in mature plants can be produced by irradiation or
chemical treatment. Artificial creations of such somatic mutations open possibilities of

production of new horticultural and agricultural plants.
Treatment of seeds and vegetative propagules commonly produces chimeras..

Shoot tip meristem usually has two functional layers; the outer layer, giving rise to
epidermis and a part of leaf mesophyll, and the inner layer producing the rest of the plant
tissues including reproductive organs.
Chimeras are of three kinds
Periclinal chimera: When the entire outer or inner layer is affected, the chimera is
known as ‘periclinal chimera’ (inner periclinal or outer periclinal depending upon the
layer affected)
Sectorial chimera: Only a part of the inner or the outer layer is affected (inner
sectorial chimera only a part of the inner or the outer layer is affected (inner sectorial and
outer sectorial respectively).
Mericlinal chimera: In mericlinal chimeras, the combination is similar to the

periclinal except that the cells carrying the mutant genes occupy only a part of the outer
cell layer.
A: Sectorial chimera
B: Periclinal chimera
C: Mericlinal chimera
3
In sexually reproducing species, only the inner chimeras (periclinal or sectorial)

will be transmitted to the next generation. Outer chimeras will not be recovered since this
layer does not contribute to the production of gametes. In clonal crops, however, both
outer and inner chimeras can be utilized either as periclinal chimeras (outer or inner) or
by producing homogeneous individuals through sexual reproduction (only if the inner
layer is affected), tissue culture or other horticultural manipulations, e.g., wounding etc.,
which induce production of adventitious shoot buds (utilizing both inner and outer
chimeras). Sectorial chimeras are unstable in clonal crops and have to be made periclinal
through successive clonal propagation and selection for stability.
Mutant alleles are generally recessive, but some dominant mutations may also
occur. In case of sexually reproducing crops, mutation breeding utilizes both recessive
and dominant mutations. In dominant mutations, the phenotype can be recognized as a
somatic mutation arising from the mutated cell, for example, a colour mutation in an
epidermal cell from ‘aa’ (colourless) to ‘Aa’. How ever, recessive mutations are much
more numerous than dominant ones. Recessive mutation can occur in the homozygous
dominant type as AA – Aa or in the heterozygote as Aa – aa. In the former one, the selfed
progeny normally segregate with 25 per cent recessive mutatnt ‘aa’ types.
Mutation breeding in clonally propagated crops primarily depends on dominant

mutation. Recessive mutation may also be utilized provided the clone used for mutagen
treatment was heterozygous; for example, if recessive mutant allele is to be useful in a
clonal crop, the clone has to have the genotype Aa. Such situations are however, rare.
More frequently, the mutants useful in the improvement of clonal crops are dominant
mutations.
Questions
1. Chimera is an individual with one genotype in some of its parts and another genotype
in the others.
Ans:True
2. Treatment of seeds and vegetative propagules commonly produces chimeras.
Ans: True
Match the following
3. Periclinal chimera - entire outer or inner layer is affected
4. Sectorial chimera - part of the inner or the outer layer is affected
5. Mericlinal chimera - only a part of the outer cell layer is affected
Lecture.10
Breeding strategies –mutagenesis and its application
Mutation
Sudden heritable change in the genotype of an organism is termed as mutation. It
may be spontaneous (without any treatment by man) or induced (artificially induced by a
treatment with certain physical or chemical agents) in plant population. The process
through which mutants get induced is called mutation and the mutated individual is called
a mutant. Mutants have variously been classified as spontaneous and induced, natural and
artificial based on their origin; germinal and somatic based on the tissue involved;
chromosomal, genic and cytoplasmic etc.
Kind of mutations
Macro mutations are large mutations and can be recognized on a single plant
basis, e.g., changes in colour, shape, etc., Micro mutations are mutations with small
effects and can be recognized only when a group of 30 or more mutant plants are
compared with a normal one. Micro mutants differ with normal only quantitatively; for
example, mutants with larger or smaller grains or higher yield, etc., Micro mutations are
more important for direct use in plant breeding.
Point mutation is another term often used to designate gene mutation but it
comprises of group of changes at individual loci (point) including micro structural
change, micro-deficiencies and gene mutation.
Somatic mutation refers to mutants appearing in vegetative part in M1

generation. It also refers to ‘bud-sport’ in the case of vegetatively propagated plants. This
may occur either due to dominant mutation (aa Aa), recessive mutation in a
heterozygote (Aa aa), removal of epistatic factor of chromosomal aberrations.
a. Spontaneous mutations: These are naturally occurring mutations, which arise

somatically. They arise in nature continuously without any human control and create
variability, which forms the basis of conventional crop breeding methods. Their
frequency is extremely low (one in a million).
b. Induced mutations: Contrary to spontaneous mutations, these are induced by using

various agents
Physical or chemical agents, which cause mutation, are known as mutagens or mutagenic
agents.
Procedure of mutation breeding

When mutations are induced for crop improvement, the entire operation of
induction and isolation of mutants is termed as mutation breeding. The various steps
involved in mutation breeding are as under:
Objectives of programme – Objective should be clear cut and well defined
Selection of variety for mutagen treatment – Locally accepted best variety in
which improvement is needed either in polygenic or monogenic trait.
Part of plant to be treated- Seeds, pollen grains or vegetative propagules (buds and
cuttings) may be used for mutagenesis. Selection of plant part for mutagenic
treatments are based on mode of multiplication / reproduction. In sexually
propagated fruit plants, seed treatment is common. Pollen grains may be used,
but it has some limitations. It is difficult to collect large amount of pollen grains
and pollen survival life is also short. In case of a sexually propagated fruit plant,
buds or cuttings are used for mutagenic treatment.
Dose of mutagen – An optimum dose is that one which produces the maximum
frequency of mutation and causes the minimum killing i.e. LD 50. It is that dose
of mutagen which would kill 50% of the treated individual. Dose of mutagen
depends upon intensity and time of treatment.
Mutagen treatment- Selected plant part is exposed to the desired mutagen dose.
The plants are immediately planted to raise M1 plant from them. In case of seed
treatment they are pre-soaked for a few hours to initiate metabolic activities and
then exposed to mutagen. Treated seeds are sown immediately in field to raise M1
generation. The seeds derived from mutated pollen is considered as M1 and

subsequent generations can be derived through selfing or clonal propagation.
Handling of the Mutagen – Treated Population
The following handling procedure is based on the selection for a recessive mutant
allele.
i. M1 generation: Several hundred (500 or more) seeds are treated with a mutagen
and are space-planted. M1 plants will be chimeras for the mutation present in
heterozygous state. About 20 seeds from each M1 plant are harvested to raise the
M2 progeny rows.
ii. M2 generation: About 2,000 progeny rows are grown. Careful and regular
observations are made on the M2 rows. But only distinct mutations are detected in
M2 because the observations are based on single plants. All the plants in M2 rows
suspected of containing new mutations are harvested separately to raise individual
plant progenies in M3. If the mutant is distinct, it is selected for multiplication and
testing. However, most of the mutations will be useless for crop improvement.
Only 1-3 per cent of M2 rows may be expected to have beneficial mutations.
iii. M3 generation: Progeny rows from individual selected plants are grown in M3.
Poor and inferior mutant rows are eliminated. If the mutant progenies are
homogeneous, two or more M3 progenies containing the same mutation may be
bulked. Mutant M3 rows are harvested in bulk for a preliminary yield trial in M4.
iv. M4 generation: A preliminary yield trial is conducted with a suitable check, and
promising mutant lines are selected for replicated multi location trials.
v. M5-M8 generation: Replicated multilocation yield trials are conducted. The

outstanding line may be released as a new variety.
It may be noted that above procedure is recommended for all horticultural crops,
which are exclusively propagated by sexual means.e.g.Vegetables, Crossandra,
Periwinkle etc.
3
A detailed method to isolate stable solid mutants in vegetatively propagated

horticultural plant is presented.
Mutation breeding scheme for the improvement of horticultural tree plants
1st year Generation Activity
A. Initial explant Shoot meristem Mutagen application x-rays

(cutting, scion, (stabilipan 220V, 15 mA), or
rooted scion, etc) gamma rays (90 Co), Chronic or
acute to establish the suitable
treatment dose, grafting, rooting
etc.
B. Occurrence of a chimeric Shoot growth Cutting back of the M1V1 shoot at

situation (mericlinal, (M1V1 the fourth basal node. Vegetative
sectroial) in auxillary bud generation) propagation of M1V1 buds (either
meristems. from the basal or the median zone)
2nd Year
C. Occurrence of possible Shoot growth Isolation of induced somatic

uniform periclinal parts (M1V2) mutation, vegetative propagation
(scion, branch, tree) of the mutated M1V2 shoots.
Cutting back of the unmutated
M1V2 shoots at the fifth basal node
3rd Year
D. Genetic uniformity Mutant growth Further isolation of somatic

achieved within the plants (M1V2) mutations and preliminary
of a mutated clone evaluation of the mutants.
Vegetative propagation of the
mutated M1V3 shoots, normal
pruning of the fruit trees.
4th – 9th year
E. Verification of the genetic Vegetative Evaluation of mutant’s

stability of the mutant and growth and fruit performance, vegetative
the sexual transmission of bearing phases propagation of the mutants for
induced somatic mutations of the mutants agronomic traits.
Crossing of the mutant, if possible,
with other variety, followed by
4
segregation.
10th year
F. Final assessment M1 V10 Release of improved clones

generation of the Registration and patenting of new
mutants variety,
Plant production in a nursery and
certification.
General characteristics of mutation

(i) Mutations are generally recessive but dominant mutations also occur.
(ii) Mutations are generally harmful to the organism.
(iii)Mutations are random.
(iv) Mutations are recurrent.
(v) Induced mutations commonly show pleiotrophy, often due to mutations in closely
linked gene.
Mutagens
Agents used for induction of mutations, are known as mutagens. The different
mutagens may be grouped as follows:
A. Physical mutagens
1. Ionizing radiations
(a) Particulate radiations – α-rays, fast neutron, thermal neutrons.
(b) Non-particulate radiations – X-rays, γ-rays.
2. Non ionizing radiation – Ultraviolet radiation.
B. Chemical mutagens
1. Alkylating agents – Sulphur mustard, mustard gas, EMS (Ethyl methane
sulphonate), Ethylene Imine (EI)
2. Acridine dyes- acriflavin, proflavin, acridine orange, acridine yellow,ethedium
bromide.
3. Base analogues – 5-bromouracil, 5-Chlorouracil.

4. Others – Nitric acid, hydroxyl amine.
Achievements
Mango – Rosica from Peruvian variety Rosadodelca
Papaya- Pusa Nanha from local type
Grape-Marvel Seedless from Delight
Banana- High gate from Gros Michel, Motta Poovan from Poovan
Orange-Washington Navel
Grapefruits – Marsh and Thompson
Questions
1. Sudden heritable change in the genotype of an organism is termed as mutation.

Ans:True
2. The mutated individual is called a mutant.
Ans:True
3. Large mutations which can be recognized on a single plant basis is known as Macro
mutation.
Ans:True
4. Agents used for induction of mutations, are known as mutagens.
Ans:True
Match the following

5. Somatic mutation - mutants appearing in vegetative part
6. Point mutation - group of changes at individual loci (point)
7. Spontaneous mutations - naturally occurring mutations
Lecture.11
Breeding strategies - hybridization and problems associated with hybridization
Hybridization
Hybridization refers to mating or crossing of two plants or lines of diverse
genotypes to obtain a viable hybrid progeny. The seed as well as the progeny resulting
from hybridization are known as ‘hybrid’ or F1.
Hybridization in self-pollinated crops
By planned hybridization between carefully selected parents, the breeder can
create populations with sufficient variability from which plants combining the desirable
features of the parents can be selected. Theoretically, all the plants of pure-line or a clone
are of one genotype (i.e. they have identical genetic constitution). Therefore, when
different pure-lines or clones are crossed, heritable variability is created by
recombination. Selection in the segregating generations of a hybrid will therefore be
effective.
Objectives of hybridization
The purpose of hybridization is to combine in a single variety, the desirable
characters of two or more lines, varieties or species. Occasionally, the recombination of
genetic factors leads to the production of new and desirable characters not found in either
of the parents. When two parents are crossed, the resultant F1 is a homogeneous one but
is heterozygous in nature, hence all plants look similar phenotypically. When they are
selfed to produce F2 the population is heterogeneous and heterozygous. Hence,
phenotypically many variations could be seen in this generation. Further, in this
generation, a cross may frequently give rise to progenies which are beyond the range of
the parents for a particular quantitative character such as height of plant, earliness, fruit
size, yield etc. This phenomenon is often referred as “transgressive segregation”. For
example, the progenies may be taller than the taller parent or earlier than the earlier
maturing parent. Such transgresive segregation may enable the breeder to attain his
objective quickly.
1
Types of hybridization
Inter-varietal hybridization
The parents involved in hybridization belong to the same species. There may be two
strains, varieties or races of the same species. It is also known as intraspecific
hybridization. The intravarietal crosses may be simple or complex depending upon the
number of parents involved.
a. Simple cross: In a simple cross, two parents are crossed to produce the F1
AxB
F1
b. Complex cross: More than two parents are crossed to produce the hybrid.
Example
Three parent cross (A, B, C)
AxB
(A B) x C
(A B C) (Complete hybrid)
Four parents (A, B, C, D)
AxB CxD
(A B) x (C D)
(A B C D)
Eight parents (A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H)
2
AxB CxD ExF GxH
AB x CD EF x GH
ABCD x EFGH
ABCDEFGH (Complex hybrid)

Hybridization technique
There are seven steps involved in hybridization.
Choice of parents
It mainly depends upon the objective of breeding programme. In addition to other
objectives, increased yield is always an objective for the breeder.
Evaluation of parents
If the performance of parents used for breeding is known, evaluation is not
necessary. But if their performance is not known, it should be evaluated, particularly for
the characters to which they are expected to contribute.
Emasculation
The removal of the stamens or anthers or the killing of pollen grains of a flower
without disturbing the female reproductive organs is known as emasculation. The purpose
of emasculation is to prevent self fertilization in the flowers of female parent.
Type of emasculation
1. Hand emasculation
2. Suction emasculation
3. Hot water emasculation
4. Alcohol treatment
5. Cold treatment
6. Genetic emasculation e.g.male sterility
3
Bagging
Immediately after emasculation, the flowers of the inflorescence are closed in
suitable bags of appropriate size to prevent random cross pollination.
Tagging
Emasculated flowers are tagged just after bagging. The following information is
recorded on the tags with a carbon pencil:
1. Date of emasculation
2. Date of pollination
3. Name of the female and male parents. The name of female parent written first, and
then the male parent
Pollination
Pollination refers to transferring the mature and fertile pollen from the male parent
to the stigma of the female parent. This is done with the help of brush delicately with out
disturbing the stigma and female flower.
The pollinated flower is enclosed in a butter –paper bag or muslin cloth bag to
avoid contamination from outside pollen and labeled. Few days after pollination, when
the fruitset is conspicuous, the bag is removed. The seeds extracted from such crossed
fruits are the F0 seeds to raise F1 or hybrid plants.
Selection procedures with hybridization
Two selection procedures are commonly followed after hybridization to isolate the
desirable genotypes from the segregating progeny.
1. The pedigree method: This is widely followed by the plant breeders now, who
maintain a detailed record of relationships between the selected plants and their
progenies. It consists of the selection of individuals plants with the desired
combination of characters in the F2 generation and reselection of the progenies of
each selected F2 plant in succeeding generations until genetic purity is reached.
2. The bulk method: This method differs from the pedigree method in that the
hybrids are grown in bulk till the F5 or F6 generation. Desirable individual plants are
selected only in the F5 or F6 generation and these are then carried forward as
families, which are evaluated in the same way as in the case of pedigree method.
4
Achievements
Fruit Hybrids
Mango Mallika, Amrapalli, Pusa Arunima, Arka Anmol, Arka Puneet,
Arka Aruna, Arka Neelkiran, Ratna, Sindhu, PKM-1, PKM-2.
Guava Arka Amulya, Safed Jam, Kohir Safed
Papaya CO-3, CO-2
Sapota CO-1, DHS-1, DHS-2, Hybrid 214, Hybrid-711
Banana CO-1
Questions
1. Crossing of two plants or lines of diverse genotypes to obtain a viable hybrid is
known as progeny hybridization.
Ans:True
2. The progeny resulting from hybridization are known as ‘hybrid’ or F1.
Ans:True
3. The parents involved in hybridization belong to the same species is known as
intraspecific hybridization.
Ans:True
4. The removal of anther without disturbing the female reproductive organs is known as
emasculation.
Ans:True
5. Pollination is known as transferring the mature and fertile pollen from the male parent
to the stigma of the female parent.
Ans:True
6. Maintaining a detailed record of relationships between the selected plants and their
progenies is known as pedigree method.
Ans:True
5
Lecture.12
Resistance breeding for biotic abiotic stresses
A plant is said to be healthy or normal when it carries out its physiological
functions to the best of its genetic potential. These normal functions include division,
differentiation, and development. Absorption of water and minerals from soil and
translocation of these throughout the plants, photosynthetic product to areas of utilization
or storage, the metabolism of synthesized compounds, reproduction and storage of food
supplies.
A plant becomes diseased when it is disturbed by pathogen under certain

environmental conditions which interfere with one or more of its essential functions.
Diseased plant refers to any disturbance brought about by living organism under
environmental factors which interfere with normal function of plant or in other words
when any organ and part of plant is not doing their work properly and when either the
growth or reproduction is not going forward in natural or regular manner.
Breeding varieties/hybrids resistant to biotic stresses viz., pests, diseases and

nematodes and abiotic stresses viz., drought, salinity and adverse climatic conditions like
frost, chilling temperature are the primary objectives in any breeding programme.
Advantages of resistant breeding
1. Farmers can use resistant varieties without incurring any extra expenditure on
plant protection chemicals.
2. It is a safe measure- fungicides and other pesticides leave some residual effect.
3. It is more effective as compared to other measures of disease and pest control.
4. In case of air borne diseases, it is impossible to cover larger area with any other
means of
5. disease control.
Concept of resistance breeding
Insects are usually specialized in their ability to attack the host or part of the host.
An insect is capable of damaging or attacking every species of the host. The plant
resistance includes those characters which enable a plant to avoid, tolerate or recover
from the attack of insect under conditions that would cause greater injury to other plant of
the same species.
Resistance is heritable characters possessed by the plant which influence the

ultimate degree of damage done by the insect. In other words, plant resistance is defined
as being the collective heritable character by which a plant species raise in groups or
individually may reduce the probability of successful utilization of that plant or a host by
an insect species, race, biotype or individuals. The degree of resistance is a relative term
which is measured by using susceptible cultivar of same plant species as check. The
degree of resistance among specific host plants may vary between two extremes i.e.
immunity and high susceptibility. Any degree of host reaction less than immunity is
resistance. In case of abiotic stress, the amino acids or enzymes connected with resistance
or tolerance to drought, salinity and other factors will be identified and the plants
possessing the desirable traits will be used as donors in breeding programmes.
Breeding methods for biotic /abiotic stress resistance
(i) Introduction
An introduced variety resistant to the concerned insect pest and diseases or abiotic
stresses may be released for cultivation if it performs well in the new environment and is
agronomically desirable. Thus, it is the quickest and perhaps, the earliest method of
developing a biotic stress resistant variety. e.g. introduction of Phylloxera vertifoliae
resistant grape rootstock from USA to France. Sometimes, the introduced variety may not
perform well in the new environment and it may be susceptible to the biotypes of the
concerned pest prevalent in the area or to a new insect pests and/or diseases of the area.
(ii) Selection
Biotic/abiotic stress resistant variants may be found in an existing variety of a

crop. In such case, selection for insect and disease resistance is practised to isolate biotic
stress resistant variety. Screening large number of germplasm for resistance at field level
and further confirmation through artificial testing will help in selection of a resistant line
which may be directly used as variety or used as donor for developing a hybrid
(iii) Hybridization
When the desired biotic/abiotic stress resistance is present in an agronomically

inferior variety of the crop or in a related wild species, hybridization is the only course of
action for the breeder e.g. breeding for fruit fly resistant variety in Ber (Vashishtha et
al.,1997) However breeding in ber is difficult due to incompatibility, low fruit set etc.
Backcross Method of Breeding
The backcross is a form of recurrent hybridization by which one or two desirable

characteristics are added on to a superior variety, wherein the hybrids and the progenies
in the subsequent generations are repeatedly back crossed to one of their parents. The
object of back crossing is to transfer one or two desirable characteristics from an inferior
variety to a superior variety, disturbing the genotype of the superior variety as little as
possible in the process. Backcrossing is particularly well suited for the transfer of one or
two simply inherited and easily recognized characters to a variety that excels in most of
its characters.
In a back cross breeding programme, the genetic consequences of repeated back

crossing must be understood. Repeated back crossing leads to rapid increase in
homozygosity and in the frequency of homozygote’s as that of selfing. The steps
involved in back cross breeding depend upon the genetic nature of the gene to be
transferred.
The method of transfer of a dominant gene is summarized below:
NONRECURRENT X RECURRENT B is the disease resistant parent and A is the disease

PARENT A PARENT B susceptible parent
F X RECURRENT PARENT A Disease resistant plants in F1 is backcrossed with

recurrent parent (A)
BC1 X RECURRENT PARENT A Disease resistant plants with similar characteristics as

that of recurrent parent A are selected & again
backcrossed with A.
BC2 x RECURRENT PARENT A
BC3 X RECURRENT PARENT A As in BC1 generation
BC6 X RECURRENT PARENT A
Disease resistant plants self pollinated and seeds

BC6 F1 SELFED harvested separately.
X
BC6 F2 111111111111
Individual plant progenies grown, selection for
disease resistance and plant type similar to parent ‘A’
made.*
Individual plant progenies grown, homozygous

progenies similar to parent ‘A’ harvested and bulked.
Replicated yield trial with parent ‘A’ as one of the

check.
--- --- --- --- ---

Seed multiplication for distribution.
--- --- --- --- ---
--- --- --- --- ---
*This resistant material is thus followed to next F3, F4, F5 generation till the desired
homozygoisty is obtained.
Normally, in the sixth back cross progeny (BC6F1) more than 98 per cent of plants would
have attained the genotypes of recurrent parent and by 10th back cross (BC10F1) or with
BC6F6 almost 99.95 per cent progenies would have become completely homozygous.
If a recessive gene is to be transferred, the step involved in the backcross breeding

programme is different.
Back cross method of breeding has been generally employed for
a. Inter-varietal transfer of simply inherited characters which is controlled by one or two

major genes (e.g. disease resistance, seed colour, plant height)
b. Inter-specific transfer of simply inherited characters – especially to transfer the disease

resistance gene from a wild species (e.g. Yellow Vein mosaic resistance in okra).
c. To transfer cytoplasm from one variety or species to another (e.g. Onion)
(iv) Mutation
Generally, it has not been used to produce a successful biotic stress resistant crop. The
reason for this is difficulty in screening of suitable mutations, the failure of such mutagenesis to
generate positive changes to the genome and large number of progeny that must be handled.
Production of disease resistant plant by non-conventional breeding
Basic technique in plant cell culture
a. Callus and suspension culture
b. Haploid culture from pollen
c. Protoplast isolation and culture
d. Embryogenesis in cell culture
e. Selection of mutation from pathotoxin resistant cells and clones
f. Regeneration within heterogeneous materials
g. Regeneration of plants from somaclonal/protoclonal variation
h. Resistant plant through fusion of protoplast
i. Disease resistance through uptake of foreign genetic material
Genetic engineering or Recombinant D3A technology
There is scope of genetic engineering in fruit crops for the development of transgenic
varieties resistant to biotic/abiotic stresses. This technology involves the isolation of gene of
desired character. Insertion of this isolated gene in a suitable vector (making it a recombinant
vector). Insertion of the recombinant vector into a suitable host (organism/cell) known as
transformation. Selection of the transformed host and multiplication followed by expression of
the introduced gene into the host is the normal procedure adopted.
Questions
1. Resistant breeding is more effective measure of disease and pest control as compared
to other measures.
Ans: True
2. Taking a crop species in to a new area where it being grown so far is known as Plant
introduction.
Ans: True
3. Repeated back crossing leads to rapid increase in heterozygosity.
Ans: False (Homozygosity)
4. The degree of resistance is measured by using susceptible cultivar of same plant
species as check.
Ans: True
5. The objective of back crossing is to transfer one or two desirable characteristics from
an inferior variety to a superior variety.
Ans: True
6. Fifth back cross (BC5F1) or with BC3F1 almost 99.95 per cent progenies would have
become completely homozygous.
Ans: False (10th back cross or BC6F1)
Lecture.13
Role of genetic engineering and biotechnology in improvement of fruit crops
Biotechnological tools are appropriate for accelerating the productivity.

Application of biotechnological tool in plant improvement has been found effective in
three ways (i) rapid multiplication of existing allied clones and varieties (ii) speeding up
the process of conventional breeding and (iii) conservation of germplasm and evolving
novel genotypes through genetic engineering technology. Realizing the importance of
biotechnology in National development, the Government of India set up a full-fledged
Department of Biotechnology (DBT) in 1986 to coordinate and oversee priority areas.
DBT has initiated a number of programmes to promote fruit industries. As a result of this,
biotechnological revolution has taken place in horticulture.
Biotechnological application
a. Micro propagation
Superior selections and hybrids developed at various research centers failed to

reach the orchardists due to lack of sufficient planting material. It leads to non-realization
of the potential of improved cultivars, thus making the efforts of fruit improvement
programme unfruitful. In this case, micropropogation can be a powerful tool for large
scale propagation of fruit crops. This is also an ideal system for production of disease free
plants. Among the fruits, micro propagation has been most successful in banana, papaya
and date palm multiplication. Long term micro propagation of passion fruit by formation
of multiple shoot primordial initiated from leaf explants has been reported (Kawate et al.,
1995). In vitro propagation of grape vine is also possible (Heloir et al., 1997. Gray and
Fisher, 1985)
b. Conservation of germplasm
The potential importance of natural gene pool to meet the future need of crop
improvement by introducing specific characters such as abiotic stress resistance can not
be under estimated. However, the number of wild species and their natural habitats are
disappearing rapidly, as a result of introduction of highly bred modern varieties, growing
urbanization and an increased pressure on land for cultivation. This leads to the erosion
of the natural germplasm to such extent that there is a general fear that potentially
valuable germplasm is being lost irretrievable. In plant improvement, it is necessary to
facilitate the assimilation of germplasm collection in working for the use of the breeders.
The process of genetic erosion necessitates measure that germplasm must be conserved in
such a manner that there should be minimal losses of genetic variability of a population.
The conventional methods of germplasm conservation may be vulnerable to losses due to
(i) Attack by pest and pathogens (ii) Climatic disorders (iii) Natural disasters and (iv)
Political and economic causes. Besides this, the seeds of many important fruit plants such
as mango, litchi etc, may loose their viability in a short time under conventional storage
system.
National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi is maintaining large in-
vitro germplasm collection of banana, phalsa, bael, jackfruit, pomegranate etc. There are
two basic approaches followed to maintain the germplasm in-vitro.
Conservation of germplasm through biotechnology is a more efficient tool for

short and medium term storage. It can be achieved by reduced temperature and light,
incorporation of sub lethal levels of growth retardants, induction of osmotic stress and
maintenance of culture of a reduced nutritional status particularly reduced carbon and
reduction of gas pressure over the culture. Advantage of this approach is that culture can
be readily brought back to normal culture conditions to produce plants on demand. But
the disadvantage is that culture may be subjected to contamination and somaclonal
variation.
Cryopreservation at ultra low temperature of liquid nitrogen at -190ºC offers the

possibility for long term storage with maximum phenotypic and genotypic stability.
c. Anther culture
In-vitro androgenesis holds a myriad of possibilities for improvement of

horticultural crops. This technology has been extended for a number of horticultural
crops. The purpose of anther and pollen culture is to produce haploid plants by the
induction of embryogenesis from repeated divisions of monoploid spores, either

microspore or immature pollen grains.
The major interest in haploids is based upon the production of homozygous plants as
an alternative for repeated cycles of inbreeding in self pollinated crops. In cross
pollinated species, double haploids are more to be used as parents in the production of
single or double cross hybrids which are as follows.
As a result of haploid induction, chromosome homozygosity is attained in a very

short time. This is particularly useful in heterozygous and self incompatible
crops like mango, etc.
With the use of homozygous parents in crossing programme, the production of
pure F1 hybrids become possible.
Haploid cell lines have great advantages in studies on mutant selection in-vitro.
d. Overcoming crossing barriers (embryo culture)

This technique pertains to the cultivation of excised plant embryo in artificial
medium. Embryo culture technique has found its application both in the applied and
basic research. In the conventional plant breeding programme, breeder often faces
problem in transferring resistance from wild species to the cultivated species and getting
the desirable interspecific hybrids (Yeung et al., 1981). Application of embryo rescue can
overcome some of the pre and post-fertilization barriers in fruit crops. Further, most
useful and popular application of zygotic embryo culture has been used in raising
hybrids. Embryo culture technique has important role in haploid production, shortening
of breeding cycle (Lammerts, 1942) rapid seed viability test and propagation of rare
plants.
e. Somaclonal variation
Somaclonal variation explores the naturally occurring or in-vitro induced
variability of somatic cells following plant regeneration. Somaclonal variation is an
excellent method for shortening breeding programmes. Somaclonal variation may be due
to variation in chromosome number, structural variation of chromosomes due to

deletions, duplication, translocation, genetic and cytoplasmic mutation etc.
Hwang and Ko (1987) identified Somaclonal variation in the cultivars Giant
Cavendish with putative field resistance to Fusarium wilt (race 4) but inferior in
agronomic characters. A somaclonal variant of Cavendish banana expressing resistance
to Yellow Sigatoka Leaf Spot disease with satisfactory yield has been reported (Chandha
and Sahiram, 2000).
f. Somatic hybridization
It is an approach of immense value in the area of fruit breeding. Somatic
hybridization provides a method where sexual incompatibility in the plants can be by-
passed. Protoplast culture includes a series of operation such as isolation of the
protoplasts from cells, culturing them in a suitable medium, inducing them to divide and
then regenerating plantlets from them. Fusion of protoplasts may occur spontaneously or
they may be induced to fuse in the presence of fusigenic agents. The polyethylene glycol
(PEG) is the most widely used fusigenic agent (Chandha et al., 2000)
Important fruit plants in which protoplast fusion is practised are as under:
$ame Method of fusion
Citrus (Tangelo)+Murrya paniculata Electrofusion
(Citrus reticulate x Citrus paradisi)+ Electrofusion
Citrus jambhiri
Citrus sinensis+Citrus reticulata Peg mediated
g. Molecular approaches
Morphological characters, chemical composition and cytological information
have been used over the years for the classification of plants. However, these techniques
have certain limitation as they could be influenced by environmental and developmental
effects. The molecular markers are now being increasingly used in the areas of plant
classification and breeding. Polygenic characters which are very difficult to analyse using
traditional plant breeding methods can be easily analysed using molecular markers.
h. Genetic engineering
The advent of recombinant DNA technology has opened tremendous possibilities
for transforming almost any plant by transferring any gene from any organism across,
taxonomic barriers. The recombinant DNA technology involves the following major
steps.
Isolation of gene of desired characters.
Insertion of the isolated gene in a suitable vector (making it a recombinant
vector).
Transformation – Insertion of the recombinant vector into a suitable host
(organism /cell).
Selection of the transformed host.
Multiplication followed by expression of the introduced gene into the host.
Gene transfer technology
Important gene transfer methods used for production of transgenic plants are
as under:
Agrobacterium-mediated transformation (Hohn et al., 1989)

Microprojectile bombardment-mediated transformation (Sanford, 1990)
Propoplast-mediated transformation (Paszkowski et al., 1989)
In-planta electroporation (Chowrira et al., 1996)
Intact tissue electroporation (D’Halluin et al., 1992)
Silicon carbide fibres (Songstad et al.,1995)
Electrophoresis (Songstad et al.,1995)
Microinjection (Neuhaus and Spangenburg,1990)
Sonication (Joerbo and Brunstedi,1992)
Laser-mediated gene transfer (Guo et al.,1995)
i. Biotechnology for biotic/abiotic stress management
Fruit crops suffer from a variety of insect pests. It is possible to implement

biotechnological approaches to manage insect pests in a rational, durable and eco friendly
manner. Therefore, novel insecticidal proteins and their respective genes need to be
identified and used in conjunction with Bt to prevent development of resistant insect. In
addition, Integrated Pest Management will have to play a central role in sustainable
horticulture. Disease resistance, herbicides resistance, abiotic resistance etc. are the areas
where genetic engineering can play an important role in imparting resistance in fruit
crops.
Eg: In apple gene attacin (from Hyalophora cecropia) Iysozyme (farm chicken) and
cercropin B (from H.cecropia) can be used for disease resistance against Eriwinia
amylovora.
Questions
1. Micro propagation is a powerful tool for large scale propagation of fruit crops.
Ans:True
2. Expand-NBPGR
Ans: National Beaureau of Plant Breeding and Genetic Resources
3. The objective of anther culture is to produce haploid plants
Ans:True
4. A popular application of zygotic embryo culture has been used in raising hybrids.
Ans:True
5. Give an example for most widely used fusigenic agent
Ans: polyethylene glycol (PEG)
6. Widely practiced gene transfer method is Agrobacterium-mediated transformation
(Biological method)
Ans:True
7. Conservation of germplasm through biotechnology is more efficient tool for short and
medium term storage.
Ans: True
8. Liquid nitrogen at temperature of -140ºC is used for cryopreservation.
Ans: False (-190 ºC)
MID TERM
EXAMINATION
Lecture.15
Crop improvement in mango
Botanical name : Mangifera indica L.
Family: Anacardiaceae
Chromosome number: 2n = 2x = 40
Mango is one of the choicest fruits of India, grown over an area of 1.23 million
hectares in the country. Mango occupies the prime position in India as apple in temperate
and grape in subtropical areas. In India, mango is acclaimed as ‘King of fruits’. The name
Mangifera was given for the first time by Bontius in 1658, when he referred to this plant
as arbor Mangifera (the tree producing mango). Linnaeus also referred it as Mangifera
arbor in 1747, prior to changing the name to its present form (Mangifera indica) in 1753.
Mango is a good source of vitamin A and C apart from the usual content of minerals and
other vitamins. Mango is also considered to have some medicinal properties. Ripe fruits
of mango are fattening, diuretic and laxative. The kernel is effective against diarrhoea
and asthma. Besides table purpose, fruits of mango can be used for the preparation of
pickles, preserves, jam, amchur (mango powder) and mango leather (ampapad) (Singh,
1992).
Germplasm resources
India is the home of mango germplasm where more than thousand varieties are
existing, which are widely distributed in different agroecological zones. Central Institute
for Subtropical Horticulture, (CISH) Lucknow has the largest collection of mango (633
accessions in the national repository) and they have greater genetic variability with
respect to fruit shape, skin colour, stone size, period and time of maturity, pulp thickness,
colour, bearing habit, yield and quality parameters (Anon., 2002). Further, IIHR,
Bangalore, IARI, Pusa, New Delhi, Sabour (Bihar), Fruit Research station Sangareddy
(Andhra Pradesh) etc. are also maintaining the germplasm of mango. In India, majority of
varieties are monoembryonic whereas in most tropical region polyembryonic types are
predominant.
1
Almost all the commercial cultivars of mango are related to a single species
Mangifera indica. However, a few commercial cultivars of South East Asia belong to
other edible species such as M. altissima. M. caesia, M. cochinchinensis, M. foetida, M.
griffithi, M. langinifera, M. longipes, M. macrocarpa, M. odorata, M. pajang, M.
pentandra, M. sylvatica and M. zeylanica. There are different reports regarding the
number of species in Genus Mangifera. Singh (1969) reported 62 species whereas
Mukherjee (1949) reported 41 species but later on he reported that only 39 species are
existing (Mukherjee, 1985). There are five species of Mangifera reported from India e.g.
M. andamanica, M. indica, M. khasiana, M. sylvatica and M. comptosperma (Mukherjee,
1985).
Objectives
Qualities of an ideal mango variety have been outlined as follows
Dwarf tree growth habit
Precocity and regularity in bearing
Attractive and good quality fruits
High productivity and resistance to major diseases and pests
Good transport and processing qualities
Breeding methods and achievements
Introduction
For incorporation of good colour to boost export of fresh fruits, a number of

mango varieties were introduced from different countries for use as donor parent.
Tommy, Ziulete, Haden, Sensation and Julie are the coloured varieties of mango which
were introduced from Miami, Florida (USA). Other varieties, Pl 24927, M 4336
(Carabao) from USA and EC 201556 (Carabao) from Phillippines were introduced as
regular bearing varieties, Cultivar Amolie and Sweet were introduced from Belgium and
Thailand respectively.
2
Selection
Almost all the present commercial varieties of mango in the world were
developed from open pollinated seedling selection e.g. Dashehari, Langra, S.B.Chausa,
Rataul, Swarnarekha etc.
Langra
The evolution of Florida varieties which are the leading mango cultivars of the
world is interesting. In 1889, introductions were made from India of which Mulgoa
became popular. Cultivar Haden was a seedling of Mulgoa. Subsequently, many
promising seedlings were selected which became popular. Tommy Atkins from Haden,
Keitt from Mulgoa, Dyke and Palmer from unknown origin, Irwin from Lippins, Golden
Nuggets and Brooks from Sandersha, Sensation from unknown origin etc. are promising
seedling selections.
Tommy Atkins
3
Clonal selection
Exploitation of natural variability for

selection of superior clones of commercial mango
cultivars has been undertaken. Clonal selection has
also resulted in identification of few elite clones.
Dashehari-51 from Dashehari, a regular bearer
(CISH, Lucknow), ‘ Subash’, a chance seedling
from Zardalu (BAC, Sabour), Red blush, a strain of
Alphonso (Vengurla), heavy yielding strains of Alphonso
Langra and Himsagar (Kalyani, W.B.), bacterial black spot resistant clones of
Kensington, superior clones of Rumani and Neelum (Tamil Nadu) and a regular bearing
cultivar ‘Cardoz Mankhurad’ in Maharashtra which is selected from Goa Mankurad. In
Maharashtra, one off-season selection ‘Niranjan” has been made at Parbhani, which
comes to flowering during June to July and matures
the fruits in October. In TNAU (Regional Research
Station, Paiyur), a clonal selection from Neelum was
identified as dwarf variety and released as Paiyur-1.
This is suitable for high density planting (400
plants/ha).
Himsagar
4
Hybridization
In mango hybridization, work taken up in post

independence period laid emphasis on regular and
precocious bearing, dwarfness, high percentage of pulp,
fibreless flesh, large fruits with red blush, good keeping
quality and freedom from spongy tissue. In recent years,
emphasis has also been laid on evolving varieties
tolerant to mango malformation. A variety Bhadauran,
tolerant to this disorder, was developed through Dashehari
hybridization between Neelum and Dashehari (Singh et al., 1985). The work at Sabour
yielded two promising hybrids namely Mahmud Bahar and Prabha Shankar from the
parental combinations of Bombai x Kalapady. Hybrid Mahmud Bahar was found to be a
regular bearer for four years whereas Prabha Shankar, was not a regular bearer. Further,
the work on improvement of mango was initiated at Saharanpur in 1951 and also in
Punjab in 1950 to develop regular bearing varieties. Later on, in India, nearly 20 inter-
varietal hybrids of mango have been released for cultivation from IARI, New Delhi,
CISH, Lucknow, IIHR, Bangalore, FRS, Sangareddy, HC & RI, Periyakulam, AES, Paria
(Gujarat), FRS, Vengurla etc. Of the hybrids developed in India, Mallika and Ratna have
received commercial recognition. The cultivar ‘Sindhu’ evolved through intensive back
crossing between Ratna and Alphonso develops fruits parthenocarpically under natural
temperature conditions.
Interspecific hybridization
Interspecific hybridization did not receive more attention but it can be a useful
tool to transfer some useful genes in cultivated varieties. This is possible because all the
Mangifera species have the same chromosome number (2n = 40). Therefore, they can
inter cross easily (Mukherjee, 1963).
5
Improved Hybridization technique
a. Single day pollination of limited number of flowers in a panicle is the ideal practice.
Here, the main emphasis was given on utilizing large number of panicles and crossing
whatever few flowers opened on the panicle during that single day. Bagging with
perforated polythene bags of 24" x 12"size of 100 gauges was preferred. Crossing of
a few flowers in a given panicle at one time is advocated than taking up crossing in
more number of flowers in a given panicle in batches over a number of days.
(Mukherjee et al., 1961).
b. Caging technique: The discovery of self incompatibility in some of the popular

cultivars at IARI, New Delhi led to further improvement in the technique of
hybridization. It is known as caging technique (Sharma and Singh, 1970, Singh et al.,
1962). In this technique, grafted plants of parent varieties are enclosed in an insect
proof cage and pollination is effected through freshly reared houseflies.
c. Marker gene: The purple colour of new leaves and panicle and beak characters of
fruit helps in identifying the hybrid seedlings in the nursery (Sharma and Majumder
et al., 1985).
d. A new off- season crossing technique was suggested by kulkarni (1986). It involves
induction of flowering in the desired parents in off season by veneer grafting, their
defoliated shoots on to leafy shoots off season flowering cv Royal special and
allowing open pollination between the desired parents. As no other cultivar flowers
during this season, this is a safe technique.
Promising hybrids of mango
IARI, New Delhi Mallika, Amrapalli, Pusa Arunima.
IIHR, Bangalore Arka Anmol, Arka Puneet, Arka Aruna,

Arka Nilkiran
6
RFRS, Vengurla Ratna, Sindhu, Konkan Ruchi.
CISH, Lucknow CISH-M1, Ambika
FRS, Sangareddy Au Rumani, Manjeera.
HC & RI, PKM-1, PKM-2

Periyakulam
BAC, Sabour Safari, Jawahar
AES, Paria Neeleshan, Neeleswari, Neelphanso
In Israel, a new cultivar, Naomi, has been released which has smooth skin and red
pigmentation. In Australia, a hybrid of Sensation x Kensington has shown promising
results. In Israel, rootstock breeding is also in progress and a polyembryonic rootstock
13/1 has been released that is tolerant to salinity.
Mutation breeding
Naturally occurring useful mutants like Rosica has been isolated from the
Peruvian variety ‘Rasado de lca’. Similarly, Davis Haden is a mutant of Haden. However,
no induced mutant is known to have been released.
Polyploidy breeding
Much scope exists for polyploidy breeding. However, till date there is no report
on this line. Vellai Columban cultivar of mango is tetraploid in nature (2n = 4x = 80)
which is a polyembryonic type.
Heterosis
Iyer and Subramanyam (1984) observed large fruits in some progenies of

Alphonso x Banganapalli. Transgressive segregation for this character was also observed.
7
The population with bigger fruits was large among hybrid progenies obtained with
Banganapalli as one of the parents. This effect may be due to an accumulation of
dominant allele each having additive effects and masking the effect of deleterious
recessive allele.
Questions
1. The name Mangifera was given for the first time by Bontius.
Ans:True
2. All the Mangifera species have the same chromosome number 2n = 40.
Ans: True
3. India is the home of mango germplasm.
Ans:True
4. Most of the mango cultivars were developed through selection from open pollinated
seedling population.
Ans: True
5. Expand- CISH
Ans: Central Institute for Subtropical Horticulture
6. Tommy Atkins variety is introduced from Philippines.
Ans: False (Miami, Florida (USA)
7. In India, Mallika and Ratna varieties have received commercial recognition.
Ans:True
8. Caging technique is adopted overcome self incompatibility in some of the popular
cultivars.
8
Ans:True
9. A Polyploidy mango cultivar is Vellai Columban.
Ans:True
10. Bhadauran hybrid is tolerant to mango malformation.
Ans: True
9
Lecture.16
Crop improvement in banana
Botanical name: Musa sp.
Family : Musaceae
Chromosome number: n=11

2n = 22, 33 or 44 also exists
History of banana breeding
Banana breeding was started in Trinidad, West Indies in 1922 and in Jamaica in
1924 (Shepherd, 1994). The driving force for this breeding programme was to develop
improved Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxsyorum F.sp. Cubense) resistant banana for export
trade. In 1960, both the programmes were combined under the Jamaica Banana Board.
United Fruit Company also started a small breeding programme in Panama in 1920s. In
India hybridization work was started at Central Banana Research Station, Adhuthurai,
Tamil Nadu in 1949. Important banana growing states are Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa,Bihar, West Bengal and Assam . In recent
days, in some districts of Uttar Pradesh, Harichal banana is cultivated on a commercial
scale. In South India, other than its edible use, banana is extensively used in all
auspicious occasions such as wedding, festivals and worshipping God. Banana is a good
table fruit, besides, the cultivar Nendran is used for cooking. It is also used for
preparation of chips.
Centre of diversity
Edible banana is native to old world especially South East Asia (Simmonds,
1962). Malayan area seems to be the primary centre of origin of cultivated banana
(M.acuminata). M.acuminata, was probably introduced into India and Burma where
M.balbisiana is a native species. Natural hybridization between these two species might
have resulted in many hybrid progenies (AAB, ABB etc).
Genetic resources
Musa has about 50 species and this genus is divided into five sections:
a) Eumusa: Includes about 13-15 species of edible and wild banana. The
chromosome number is 2n=22 in wild species and most of the cultivated varieties
are having 2n=33 (2n=44 rarely) e.g. M.acuminata, M.balbisiana, M.basjoo etc.
b) Rhodochlamys: Mostly diploid, spread from India to Indonesia. Five to seven
species are kept in this group. Parthenocarpy is absent in this group e.g. M.ornata,
M.velutina.
c) Callimusa: This is of ornamental value and x=10 and 2n =20. It is found in Indo-
China, Malaya and Borneo. Parthenocarpy is absent in this type. It includes about
5-6 species e.g. M.coccinea.
d) Australimusa: Like Callimusa it has x = 10 and 2n=20 chromosome. Species of
this group is common in Queensland and Philippines. Important species of this
group are M. textilis or manilahemp, M.maclavi etc.
e) Incertae sedis: It includes M.ingens (x=7, 2n=14) of New Guinea which grows to
a height of over 10 m. This is the largest known herb. Another species in this
group is M.beccarii (x=9, 2n=18) from North Borneo.
Ensete is another genera of this family probably originated in Asia. Genus Ensete
has 6-7 species of which E.ventricosa is reported to be grown in Ethiopia as a food crop.
The most important Musa cultivars are almost sterile triploids (2n=3x=33) and also
tetraploid and diploid banana cultivars have also local importance in Asia. All banana and
plantain land races are farmers selection from intra and inter specific hybridization of two
different species, M.acuminata Colta, donor of the A genome and M.balbisiana Colta,
donor of the B genome. Simmonds and Shepherd (1955) reported scoring technique to
indicate the relative contribution of the two wild species for the constitution of a given
cultivar. Fifteen distinguishing characters between Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana
were identified by them. Score one was given for each character in which a cultivar
agreed with Musa acuminata and score five was given for each character to which agreed
with Musa balbisiana. Intermediate expressions of the characters were assigned score of
2, 3, or 4 depending on their intensity.
Taxonomic Scoring of banana based on distinguishing features
Characters Musa acuminata Musa balbisiana

Pseudostem More or less heavily marked with Blotches slight or absent
colour black or brown blotches
Petiolar canal Margin erect or spreading with Margins not winged below,
scarious wings below, not clasping clasping pseudostem
pseudostem
Peduncle Usually downy or hairy Glabrous
Pedicel Short Long
Ovules Two regular rows in each locule Four irregular rows in each
locule
Bract shoulder Usually high (ratio:0.28) Usually low (ratio:0.30)
ratio
Bract curling Bracts roll Bracts lift but do not roll
Bract shape Lanceolate or narrowly ovate Broadly ovate, not tapering
tapering sharply from the shoulder sharply
Acute
Bract apex Red dull purple or yellow Inside Obtuse
pink, dull purple
Bract color Inside bract colour fades to yellow Inside bract colour
towards base continues to base
Bract scars Prominent Scarcely prominent
Free tepal of Variably corrugated below tip Rarely corrugated
male flower
Male flower Creamy white Variably flushed with pink
colour
Stigma colour Orange or rich yellow Cream, pale yellow or pale
pink.
At the botanical garden, Howrah, seeds of few banana species were collected
from Chittagong and Madras (Roxburg, 1832). More number of genotypes of banana was
also maintained at Central Banana Research Station, Aduthurai (Nayer, 1957). After that
it was shifted to Horticulture college and research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore. After the formation of National Research Centre on Banana
(NRCB) in 1995, a wide germplasm collection including wild types are being maintained
at this centre and intensive research programmes are being taken up on various problems
3
related with banana. Presently, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University also maintaining
186 collections of germplasm.
Objectives of breeding
To develop dwarf statured banana suitable for high density planting and to
prevent damage from high wind velocity.
Production of good quality fruits.
Resistant to biotic and biotic stresses i.e. nematodes, panama wilt, bunchy top,
sigatoka leaf spot, moko disease and pseudostem weevil etc.
To develop varieties with wider agro-ecological adaptability.
Development of male fertile parthenocarpic diploids with resistance to major
diseases and pests.
Developing longer finger size.
Suitability for export.
Good keeping quality.
Taxonomic classification of edible banana (Simmonds and Shepherd, 1955)
Genome Ploidy level Score and nomenclature
Constitution
AA 2x 16-23 Matti,Anai komban
AAA 3x 15-21 i)Gros Michel ii) Cavendish
AAAA 4x 15-20 Bodles Altafort (Synthetic
hybrid of West Indies)
AB 2x 46-49 Ney Poovan, Kunnan
AAB 3x 26-46 Champa, Rsathali
ABB 3x 59-63 Kanchkela, Monthan
ABBB 4x 63-69 Klue Teparod

Introduction
Introduction of some cultivators of banana was made

with resistance to biotic stresses e.g. Lady Finger (EC 160160)
resistant to bunchy top virus introduced from Australia and is
being evaluated at IIHR, Bangalore and TNAU, Coimbatore.
Further, cultivars Naine MS (EC 27237) from France and
Valery from West Indies were introduced for utilization in
Lady Finger
improvement programme (Singh and Rana, 1993).
Hybridization
In India, breeding work was started at Central Banana Research Station,

Aduthurai (Tamil Nadu) in 1949 (Sathiamoorthy and Balamohan, 1993). Afterwards
breeding programme was also initiated at TNAU, Coimbatore and Kerala Agricultural
University, Trichur. Technique of hybridization in banana is different from other crops.
Pollination is best carried out in the morning. The bunches of female parent are bagged at
shooting and each successive hand is pollinated as it is exposed. At maturity and ripening
the bunch is cut and seeds are extracted. Seeds are sown at once in the green house.
Evaluation of hybrid progenies from seedlings to harvest may not be the correct
phase instead, evaluation of the same under next vegetative phase i.e., sucker to harvest
stage will be ideal as full expression of yield potential could be observed only in the
second crop of the F1 progeny. The first crop (seedling to harvest) takes more than 15-19
months, where most of the energy of the plants is needed for corm formation.
Three main approaches in breeding dessert bananas of the Cavendish types are:
1. 3n x 2 n superior diploid; there is no chromosome reduction in the egg cells thus

yielding tetraploids
2. 4 n bred tetraploids hybrids x 2n superior diploids producing ‘Natural triploids’
3. 2 n meiotic restituting clones x 2n superior diploids producing ‘Natural triploids’.

Developing new diploid male parent
In many banana growing countries, initially wild diploid bananas (AA) were
utilized as male parent and as a result, the resultant tetraploids had inherited many
undesirable traits. Hence, it has been felt by banana breeders that the primary objective is
to synthesize a good male parent. An ideal male parent must be highly resistant to
Panama and Sigatoka diseases, must have vertical and compact bunch and fruits as large
as the diploidy can allow and must be parthenocarpic having sufficient pollen to permit
its use as a male parent. Musa acuminata subsp. burmannica and its hybrids offer a good
source of resistance to black Sigatoka. One such diploid developed in Honduras is SH
2989. Other male diploids worthy to be mentioned are SH 3142 for nematode resistance
and SH 3176 evolved through multiple crosses for resistance to Black Sigatoka with
desirable horticultural traits.
Breeding work at T3AU
Since 1971, extensive inter-diploid crosses were made to synthesize new diploid
forms at the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore using the following
parents:
Matti (AA) is a diploid cultivar commercially grown in the

southern most part of India. It exhibits a strong resistance to
Sigatoka disease but is highly susceptible to nematodes. Its
bunches weigh 12 to 19kg with 9 to 10 hands containing fairly
long fingers. It sets seeds when pollinated, though it is highly
male sterile. This cultivar is extensively used as female parent in
the diploid breeding programmes. M.acuminata subsp.
Matti burmannica has been shown to have resistance to fusarium wilt
Races 1 and 2, sigatoka diseases and nematodes.
Other diploid clones involved in the diploid male parents synthesis at Coimbatore are
the indigenous cultivars Anaikomban (AA) and Namarai (AA). Anaikomban is resistant
to nematodes and fusarium wilt but susceptible to yellow sigatoka. It has long fingers (15
6

to 18 cm) and usually produces a smaller bunch weighing 6 to 8 kg. Namarai is a small
slender plant, grown in Pulney and Sirumalai hills of Tamil Nadu. With small fruits
having piquant flavor and pleasant acid sweet taste. It has very short pedicel. It is
susceptible to both Sigatoka disease and nematodes but no incidence of Panama disease
is known so far.
The introduced diploids are Pisang lilin (AA) and Tongat (AA), known for their
resistance to Panama disease and nematodes.
Many synthetic hybrids (diploids) have been developed which have good horticultural
characters including resistance to Sigatoka, Panama wilt and burrowing nematodes.
These hybrids are now used as the male parents to cross with local triploid varieties or
inter crossed to synthesise new triploid hybrids.
3n x 2n breeding programme taken up at TNAU has resulted in the development of

CO1 banana.
Kallar Laden x M balbisiana cv. Sawai
(AAB) (BB)
AB x Kadali (AA)
CO 1 (AAB)
It is a Pome group of banana of the genome AAB and closely resembles

Virupakshi (AAB), a pome type banana popular in the hills of Tamil Nadu. Presently
three pre-release cultures viz., H.96/7 ( akin to Karpooravalli)
At Kerala Agricultural University, two hybrids viz., BRS-1 (Agniswar x

Pisang lilin) and BRS -2 (Vannan x Pisang lillin) have been developed. BRS -1 (AAB) is
100 days earlier than Rasthali with significant differences in bunch weight. It has been
released for homestead cultivation in Kerala, as it is resistant to sigatoka leaf spot. BRS-2
(AAB) is a medium statured hybrid, tolerant to leaf spot and panama disease, rhizome

weevil and nematodes. The average bunch weight is 14 kg with 8 hands and 118 fruits in
crop duration of 314 days.
Breeding work in other Countries
PITA-9: A Black Sigatoka Resistant (BSR) hybrid from the “False Horn”
plantain, a tetraploid hybrid having black Sigatoka resistance has been developed at
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria.‘BITA-3’ is a tetraploid
starchy banana hybrid with low partial resistance to black Sigatoka disease developed at
IITA High Rainfall Station in Onne (Southeastern Nigeria), where both (Banana streak
virus) and cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) have been observed. ‘BITA-3’ is a hybrid from
the interspecific cross ‘Laknau’ x ‘Taju Lagada’, ‘Laknau’ is a female –fertile AAB
starchy banana that closely resembles plantains. ‘Taju Lagada’ is an AA diploid Banana
having a long bunch with many hands. BITA-3’ produces heavy bunches.
Banana breeding programme has been taken up in Honduras by the Fundacion

Hondurena De Investigation Agricola (FHIA) with the aim of developing superior diploid
plantations combining desirable agronomic traits with resistance, which is then used for
production of primary tetraploids. This organization has developed many FHIA hybrids,
which possess resistance to nematodes, Fusarium wilt etc. Introduction and testing of
these hybrids in India in various centers revealed superior performance of FHIA-1,
FHIA-3, FHIA-21 and FHIA-25.
Mutation breeding
Bud mutation in Indian banana is very common perhaps due to spontaneous

rearrangement of chromosomes in somatic meristem and structural re-assortment. A great
majority of edible bananas are triploids, a condition that interferes with normal
equilibrium of plants and may provide the requisite stimulus to structural rearrangement
of chromosomes, leading ultimately to the evolution of a new gene complex. Several
natural sports of well established commercial clones have been recognized e.g) High gate
(AAA) is a semi-dwarf mutant of Gros Michel (AAA), Motta Poovan (AAB) is a sport of
Poovan (AAB), Ayiranka Rasthali a sport of Rasthali (or Silk), Barhari Malbhog is a

sport of Malbhog, Krishna Vazhai is a natural mutant of Virupakshi (or Pome), and
Sambrani Monthan (ABB), a mutant of Monthan (ABB).
In Nendran, more than six mutants have been

Nendran
recognized. One of these, Moongil, has undergone such
a radical change that there is no male phase and a bunch
has only one or two hands with biggest size fruits. Attu
Nendran, Nana Nendran, Myndoli, Velathan and Nenu
Nendran are a few mutants which have been selected for
one or the other desirable character. Similarly,
Ambalakadali and Erachi vazhai are mutants of Red
Banana. The Kunnan variety of Malabar has provided a few mutants known as Thattilla
Kunnan (male phase absent), Veneetu Kunnan,
Adakka Kunnan and Thaen Kunnan. From cv.Monthan, Sambal Monthan, Nalla
Bontha Batheesa, Sambrani Monthan, Pidi Monthan and Thellatti Bontha have been
recognized as sports. At INIVIT, Cuba induced mutations of ABB cooking banana,
Burrow Cemsa, was obtained (Rodriguez Nodals et.al., 1992). At TBRI, Taiwan, Tai
Chiao 1 and GCTV, triploid bananas with Fusarium wilt resistance are obtained as a
result of clonal variation of AAA Cavendish banana (Hawang 1991, Hwang and KO,
1988, 1989). The early flowering FATOM 1 was developed as a result of in vitro gamma
irradiated meristem culture of cv.Grand Naine has been released in Malaysia.

Biotechnology
Plant tissue culture and molecular biology techniques are applied to enhance the
handling and improvement of banana. Important application of a cell biology are micro
propagation for rapid multiplication and germplasm exchange, embryo culture/rescue for
in-vitro seed germination, cryopreservation of germplasm and genome manipulation
through genetic engineering using cell suspensions or protoplast culture. Although,
Vylsteke et al. (1996) reported that somaclonal variation through micropropagation is of
limited use in plantain breeding, it has been successfully applied in Taiwan for the
development of improved Cavendish banana cultivars with resistance to Fusarium wilt
and acceptable fruit quality (Hwang 1991, Hwang and Ko, 1989). In gene transfer
methods, Sagi et al. (1995), from Katholieke University, Leuven. Belgium reported that
the transgenic triploid cooking banana showing transient expression of GUS marker gene
in pot growing in the green house from DNA particle bombardment on ABB cooking
banana. The molecular markers are providing tools for phylogenetic investigations and
cultivar identification, basic genetic research, marker assisted selection and diagnostics in
pathogen identification.
Source of resistance
3ame of the clone/cultivars 3ame of the biotic and abiotic stress
Musa balbisiana Drought

Calcutta-4 Black sigatoka
Pisang Lilin Panama wilt (Race1)
SH3142 (Diploid hybrid) Race 1 of Fusarium
Musa acuminata sp malaccensis Race 1 and Race 2 of Fusarium
Musa acuminata sp burmannica Bacterial wilt race 2, Moko disease
Pisang Jari Buaya (PJB) Burrowing nematode
Tongat and Anaikomban Nematodes
10

Questions
1. In India hybridization work was started at Central Banana Research Station,

Adhuthurai, Tamil Nadu. as early as 1949.
Ans:True
2. Parthenocarpy is absent in Rhodochlamys group banana.
Ans:True
3. Callimusa is an ornamental banana.
Ans:True
4. Incertae sedis group of banana grows up to 10 m height.
Ans:True
Match the following

5. AA - Rasthali
6. AB - Bodles Altafort
7. AAA - Matti
8. AAB - Gros Michel and Cavendish
9. AAAA - Klue Teparod
10. ABBB - Ney Poovan
Ans
1. AA - Matti
2. AB - Ney Poovan
3. AAA - Gros Michel and Cavendish
4. AAB - Rasthali
5. AAAA - Bodles Altafort
6. ABBB - Klue Teparod
11

Lecture.17
Crop improvement in citrus
Botanical ame : Citrus sp.
Family : Rutaceae
Chromosome number : 2n= 2x = 18
Citrus constitutes a major group of fruits comprising of mandarins, oranges,

lemon, pummelo, grape fruit, tangelo, trifoliate orange, citron, citranges etc. Despite of
inter-specific and inter-generic hybrids, Poncirus and Fortunella also belong to genus
Citrus. During its long history, citrus has given the world numerous varieties both by
open pollination, bud sports and of recently by controlled pollination and artificial
induction of bud variation. Citrus fruit cultivation lies between latitude 40°N also 40°S
where conditions are neither cold nor moist and dry. India is considered to be the home
of several citrus species and they are found growing wild in some parts of the country.
Many types of citrus still remain unexploited by man and such types are considered as
semi-wild.
Centre of diversity
There are three major centers of diversity in India. The first in the North-East
including Assam and adjoining areas. It includes Papedas, pummelos and their hybrids,
citron, lemons and mandarins and other interesting types like jenera-tenga, soh synteng, a
sour fruit similar to the sweet lime and soh siem, a mandarin type. The second diversity
in south India, indigenous types include Gajanima, kichili and some wild mandarin types.
The third in North-West region at the foot of Himalayas where the hill lemon (galgal) is
common. The various types of mandarins, hybrids of pummelo, citron,lemons,karna-
khatta and rough lemon are found all over the country. In general, the wild types are
more common in the foot hills. Many of the progenitors of citrus fruits are believed to
have originated in India. These include C. latipes, C. limonia, C.kama,
C.pennevesiculata, C.maderaspatana, many of these are wild types. Presence of Sah-
Niangriang, a wild sweet orange and a wild mandarin (C.indica) furnishes strong
1
evidence that Eastern India might be the centre of orgin for many citrus fruits, (Tanaka,
1981).
Germplasm resources
Exotic collection of citrus germplasm was started in 1940. Kinnow mandarin was
one of the collections which is now a leading cultivar in North – Western India. Besides,
other exotic collections were Valencia Late, Washington Navel, Jaffa, Malta Blood Red,
Pineapple, Ruby orange, Satsuma, Dancy Tangerine, Climentime, and Cleoptera wilking
,Temple, Duncan, Marsh seedless, Lisbon lemon, Trifoliate orange, Dancy, Lisbon
lemon, Trifoliate orange, (Dutta,1958), More than 650 accessions are being maintained
at CHES, Chethali, Bangalore, CHES, Ranchi, RFRS, Abhor, NRC on citrus, Nagpur,
Horticultural Experiment Station, Bathinda, IARI, New Delhi, MPKV, Rahuri, Citrus
Improvement Project, Tirupati, Citrus Experiment station, Nagpur, HC&RI, Periyakulam,
and Citrus Experiment Station, Tinsukia, Assam. During 1988 as a result of systematic
exploration by NBPGR in North-Eastern region, C. Indica and many endangered species
were collected for conservation.
North-Eastern region is a hunting ground of biodiversity of Citrus species.

Chakrawar et.al (1988) identified two promising clones of acid lime Vikram and
Pramalini in Maharashtra. At Nagpur, seedless Santra has been selected which gives
high yield and quality fruits (Anon., 1989.)
Attempt has been made during 1978 by NBPGR to preserve the C. indica which
is progenitor of C.reticulata (Singh, 1981). For establishment of gene sanctuary, National
Park, the natural genetic diversity of C .indica was observed in the forest of Garo hills in
Megalaya which exhibited plant characters varying from bush to climber with high
frequency of distribution in dense forest and showing resistance to biotic stresses.
Therefore, a gene sanctuary for C. indica was established in Tanga Range in Garo hills.
Genetic material of citrus is conserved in field gene bank or repository.
2
Problems in citrus breeding

There are three major problems which hinder the success of citrus breeding.
Time
Citrus being perennial in nature takes more time for bearing .However this
period can be reduced to a maximum of half by top working the seedling on an old tree.
Polyembryony
It is peculiar feature found in citrus in which seed consist of more than one
embryo. In addition to the zygotic embryo, one or more sometimes as many as fifteen
additional embryos are developed from the nucellar tissue called nucellar embryos and
found in the embryo sac. Most often, the zygotic seedling is crowded out by the vigorous
nucellar seedlings. Forgetting large number of hybrids, citrus breeder should select a
seed parent known to be either monoembryonic citrus species or polyembryonic except
(C.medica, C.latifolia and C.grandis) which are monoembryonic restricts the choice of
breeder and complicate the procedure required to attain the desirable objectives.
Sterility
Sterility is inability of gametic or sexual reproduction. Prevalence of high
generative sterility is obviously a serious hindrance in the use of a particular parent for
hybridization. Complete pollen sterility is problematic, where proportion of nucellar
embryos are very high. High level of sterility often leads to production of seedless fruits
which is serious hindrance to develop varieties.
Self incompatibility
Self incompatibility and cross incompatibility is a common phenomenon which

occurs widely in citrus. Most of the varieties of grape fruit (C.grandis) are found to be
self incompatible besides, some varieties of lemon, sweet orange and mandarins exhibit
self incompatibility of gametophytic type goverened by oppositional alleles. Hybrid
cultivars including Clementine, Orlando, Minneola, Sukega, Nova, Robinson are cross
incompatible. Nova and Robinson is also suspected to be cross incompatible. Sweet
orange varieties like Washington Navel and Satsuma mandarin are having sterile pollen,
3
thereby they produce parthenocarpic fruits if cross pollination is not done through viable
pollens.
Long juvenility
It is a major barrier in the progress of citrus breeding in India. General treatments

to shorten the period or induce early flowering have not been generally effective. It was
reported that neither chemical treatments nor incorporation by genetic transfers has been
effective in combating long juvenility in citrus.
Breeding objectives
Producing early maturing citrus fruits with high yield and fruit quality.
Developing rootstocks having disease and nematodes resistance, wider
adaptability, etc.
In rootstock breeding, the main emphasis has been given on the development of
root stock resistant to tristeza virus, Phytophthora, nematodes, etc. Most of the breeding
programmes make use of Poncirus, which is a carrier of resistance to tristeza,
Phytophthora and nematodes besides cold hardiness. Salt tolerant rootstocks have also
been found possible in some progenies involving Cleopatra and Sunki mandarin and
Rangpur lime.
Floral biology
Flowering in citrus takes place during February –April. In North India, sweet
orange and mandarins bloom only once in March. However, it is reported that sweet
oranges bloom twice in a year under Bihar conditions i.e.February –March and June –
July. Inflorescense in citrus species is of cymose type. Generally anthesis takes place
in the morning between 9.00 am to 12.00 noon. Flowers on shaded side of the tree have
been observed to open later than those exposed to sunshine.
4
Breeding Methods
Introduction
Introduction of germplasm either from other countries or from one agro climatic
region to the other within the country has been one of the most potent improvement
methods. The mandarin variety ‘Santra’ is known to have been grown in India for many
centuries. It was introduced into the Central Provinces (now Maharashtra) by Ranghojee
Bhonsal II from Aurangabad in eighteenth century. Tangerines, St.Michael Blood Orange
and Large White Orange were imported and cultivated at Goojranwallah in Punjab during
1880. The present century has seen the introduction of a number of sweet orange varieties
including Washington Navel, Valencia, Jaffa, Blood Red Malta and tangerines. The first
two were introduced from America and the others from the respective countries of their
origin. Grapefruits were introduced from California and Florida, lemons from China and
Malta from USA and Italy. ‘Mosambi’ seems to have been introduced in Nagpur during
the beginning of the 20th century.
The introduction of ‘Kinnow’ mandarin (King x Willow leaf) in 1947 showed
great promise in North India. It was introduced in South India in 1958 and Punjab in
1959 and has performed extremely well in Punjab.
Clonal selection
Exploitation of natural variability existing in a variety has resulted in the isolation
of some promising clones in Citrus.
1. ‘PKM 1 lime is a clonal selection from seedling progenies of kadayam Type of
Tirunelveli district of Tamil Nadu.
2. ‘Yuvaraj Blood Red’ is a seedless and early maturing clonal selection from
‘Blood Red’ orange.
3. ‘Pramalini’ and ‘Vikaram’, the two kagzi lime varieties were developed
through clonal selection at Marathwada University.
4. ‘Chakradha’ is a thornless and seedless selection from Kagzi lime.
5
Hybridization
Hybridization is confronted with real problems in citrus improvement, both on
scion as well as rootstocks because the long juvenile phase delays the assessment of the
hybrids.
Most of the cultivated varieties are highly polyembryonic, hence the crosses made
using these as females result in very few weak hybrids, which are difficult to identify
from nucellar seedlings. Electrophoretic techniques separating the isozymes of parents
and hybrids may be of great value in scion breeding programme, as no morphological
markers are available at present.
The heterozygous nature of the crop further leads to wide segregation. The
problems are little less complicated of rootstock breeding where the commonly used
disease resistant male parent ‘Poncirus trifoliata’ has trifoliate leaves which is dominant
over the monofoliate character (in other citrus varieties and all the hybrids), by which
distinction of unifoliate nucellar seedlings could be easily made.
Hybridization Technique
The mature flower buds on the female parent are emasculated early in the
morning on the day of opening and are bagged. The flowers to be used as male parent are
bagged the previous evening. The next morning as the day warms up, the anthers dehisce
releasing the pollen grains when these flowers can be plucked to pollinate the receptive
stigmas of emasculated flowers. The pollinated flowers are bagged, opened after about a
week and allowed to mature into ripe fruits. In some cases, especially when the trifoliate
orange is used as male parent, difficulties are encountered as its flowering is over before
other citrus varieties flower. Therefore, pollen has to be stored at low humidity and
temperature.
Seeds from mature fruits are extracted and sown immediately in sterilized sand
and soil mixture. When seedlings are about 15 cm high, hybrid seedlings are identified.
Particularly those showing some morphological characters of male parent are marked
while others are rejected. Electrophoresis methods can also be employed for
identification of zygotic seedlings. Identification of hybrid seedlings having P.trifoliata
as male parent is easily done by looking for trifoliate character. The hybrid seedlings are
grown to mature trees in the field and the seedlings raised from the fruits are evaluated
6
for resistance to various diseases, insect pests, nematodes and for suitability as scion or
rootstock.
Evaluation for rootstock purpose
Rootstock hybrids should have desirable attributes like high percentage of
nucellar embryony, resistance to different diseases and nematodes. The selected hybrids
are then tested with different scion varieties and compared with the commercial
rootstock. Various plant and fruit characters, yield and yield contributing characters are
recorded.
Evaluation of scion hybrids
In the first round of evaluation, the zygotic seedlings are raised on suitable
rootstock and observations on different vegetative and fruit characters are recorded.
Meanwhile, the resistance to different diseases is also confirmed. Selected hybrids are
tested on different rootstocks at different locations and compared with the commercial
varieties.
Intergeneric and intrageneric hybrids
Intergeneric
Though intergeneric hybrids are rare in fruit plants, much success has been
obtained in Citrus.
1. Hybrids of Poncirus
Citrange –A group having the parentage of trifoliate orange (Poncirus trifoliata)
and sweet orange (C.sinensis), the hybrids showed intermediate characters of the parents.
The leaves are mainly trifoliate but unifoliate evergreen leaves are also observed in some
plants. The fruits are juicy and flavoured. Some of the cultivars are Troyer, Carrizo,
Morton, Etonia, Rusk, Coleman, etc.
Citrangequat - This is a tri-generic hybrid of three different genera
(Poncirus, Citrus and Fortunella).
Citrangor - This hybrid was developed by back crossing Citrange with
C.sinensis.
Cicitrange - Another back cross hybrid between Citrange and Poncirus
trifoliata
x C.paradisi.
7
Citrandarin - A hybrid between Poncirus trifoliata and C .reticulata.

Citremon - A hybrid between Poncirus trifoliate and C.limon
Citradia - Very similar to citrange. A hybrid between Poncirus
trifoliata and
C.aurantium.
Citumquat - This is the hybrid between Poncirus trifoliate and
Fortunella
japonica or F.margarita, a very difficult hybrid to breed.
II.Hybrids of Fortunella
Procimequat - (F.japonica x C.aurantifolia cv. Mexican) x F. hindisii
Limequat - C.aurantifolia x F.japonica
Orangequat - C.reticulata cv.Satsuma x F.japonica x F.margarita cv.
Meiwa.
Intrageneric Tangor - Mandarin x sweet orange (C.sinensis x C.reticulata)
hybrids
e.g.cv.Temple, Clementine, and Monreal are some
important
cultivars, mostly monoembryonic.
Tangelo - Mandarin x grapefruit, (C.reticulata x C.paradisi)
e.g.cv.Orlando,
Sampson, Minneola, Seminole, etc.
Lemon - Lemon x lime, (C.limon xC.aurantifolia) e.g.cv.Parrine
Lemonnage
(C.limon x C.sinensis) Lemandarin (C.Limon x
C.reticulata)
In India, very little work has been done on citrus improvement through
hybridization. At the PKV, Akola, hybridization work has been undertaken to evolve
hybrids of kagzi lime. As a result, Hybrid 2, Hyrbid 4 and N52 were found resistant to
canker.
Breeding for improvement of citrus rootstock was initiated in 1972 at the Central
Horticultural Experiment Station, Chethali, and IIHR, Bangalore. Trifoliate orange was
8
used as a donor source for Phytophthora and citrus nematode resistance. Hybridization
programme resulted in the production of 1183 hybrids from 16 different cross
combinations. Of these, CRH.3, CRH.5 and CRH.41 resistant to citrus nematode have
been evolved. A hybrid between Rangpur lime and trifoliate orange (Australia) having
high resistance to nematodes and Phytophthora, and highly polyembryonic in nature is
being evaluated for its suitability as rootstock for mandarin and sweet orange.
Mutation Breeding
Somatic mutations are common in citrus and through selection of the natural
mutants, quite a few number of desirable clones have been obtained. The frequent
occurrence of chimera may lead to clonal impurity and thus bud selection work in
propagation becomes important for ensuring clonal purity. Selections of natural mutants
have been successfully employed for seedlessness (lyo tangor), season of ripening
(Satsuma, Navel), improvement of colour (Ray Ruby grapefruit) etc. in Citrus.
Besides natural mutations, many induced mutants have been developed in Citrus.
For instance, ‘Star Ruby’ and ‘Rio Red’ varieties of grapefruit were developed in Texas,
USA through x ray and thermal neutron treatments of seeds of cv. ‘Ruby red’ whose red
flesh colour faded at harvest. In Japan, a few closely related clones of Satsuma mandarin
with varied fruit colour and fruit ripening times were obtained through mutation. In USA
also mutations had produced Satsuma seedling lines differing in productivity, fruit shape
and the ripening time. The grapefruit clones like Thompson and Foster Pink arose as limb
sports on white grapefruit. Gamma irradiation of seeds and bud woods performed in
Orlando, Florida, resulted in Seedless fruits on certain trees of seeded cultivars like
Pineapple orange as well as Duncan and Foster grapefruit. In Israel, Shamouti trees of
compact habit and early fruiting types and seedlessness have been developed in Eureka
lemon through irradiation of bud wood with gamma rays.
Polyploidy breeding
Most of the species and varieties of Citrus are diploids but occurrence of
polyploidy has been reported in many cultivars. The Hongkong wild kumquats,
9
Fortunella hindsii may have been the first reported tetraploid. Polyploidy breeding
seems to offer prospects to obtain large sized fruit with dwarf plant types. Production of
triploids by crossing tetraploid with diploids may be useful in obtaining seedless
varieties. The seedless lime (C. latifolia) a triploid. Triploids have favorable
characteristics and yield well but they are sterile. The development of triploid through
breeding is very limited. Production of 3x is normally achieved by crossing of 4x with
2x which is often not feasible for want of sexual parents. The reciprocal cross ((2x) x
(4x)) produces many tetraploid individuals. Polyploidy manipulation by crossing of
tetraploids with diploids yielded some valuable triploid varieties like ‘Oroblanco’ and
‘Melogold’. A large diversity of autotetraploid parents with desirable characters
expressed in the progeny will be of high value to any citrus cultivar breeding program.
Spontaneous autotetraploids occur among many polyembroyonic citrus varieties.
Tetraploid trees of monoembryonic cultivars can be obtained by colchicine treatment.
Triploids also, occasionally occur spontaneously as sexual seedlings. In most cases the
egg provides the double chromosome number.
Biotechnology in improvement of citrus
Transformation of fruit species by biotechnological tools is a potential approach

to develop disease resistant cultivars. Woody plants are known to be difficult to work in-
vitro than herbaceous plants but citrus is exceptional. Though nucellar embryony in citrus
is of great value for producing vigorous, uniform and virus free plants, it appears to be an
obstacle in hybridization. In polyembryonic cultivars, the vigorous growth of nucellar
embryos inhibits the growth of the zygotic embryo and causes its degeneration prior to
seed maturation. Such abortive embryos can be rescued by tissue culture. Tissue culture
has effectively been used in obtaining hybrid Poncirus plantlets from polyembryonic
citrus cultivars. Poncirus trifoliata not only carries a genetic marker, but also possess
resistance to tristeza, Phytophthora, nematode and cold stress. Inter – generic
hybridization with the aid of cell/tissue culture offers possibility of incorporation of
multiple desirable characters found in different genera for improvement of citrus root
stocks and scion cultivars.
10
Cell and tissue culture and specially protoplast manipulations have effectively
been explored in citrus improvement by regeneration of citrus trees from protoplast,
somatic hybridization (cybridization) and organelle transfer. In an attempt to develop
protoplast derived plants in the last one decade, Israel and Florida have shown protoplast
system in a dozen genera and interestingly citrus is the only woody plants among them.
Efficient protocols have been developed to obtain protoplasts with cell diversion
capability from all major citrus cultivars and some of their wild relatives.
Important species and cultivars
Mandarin group
Citrus reticulata
Loose skinned orange, though mandarin and tangerine are names used more or
less interchangeably to designate the whole group, tangerine is applied more strictly to
those varieties which produce deep orange or scarlet fruits.
Calamondin (C. madurensis)
Tanaka has recognized it as loose skinned orange group. It is very cold resistant
for a true citrus fruit as hardy as Satsuma. Fruit colour is orange to deep orange, smooth
and glossy surface, pitted shape, oblate, deep orange, and size small with flattened base
having 7-10 segments.
Clementine (Algerian Tangerine)
It is a tangerine and is probably an accidental hybrid of the mandarin and sour

orange which is considered to be originated in Algeria. Fruit colour deep orange, shape
globose to elliptical, size-medium with depressed apex, rind thick, segments 8-12 adhered
slightly. It is an early variety.
11
Cleopatra (C. reshni)
It is originated in China. Plant is thornless with dense top. Fruits are produced
singly or in clusters, fruit colour dark orange red, shape oblate flattened at both ends, size
small and segments 12-15.
Coorg orange
It is an important variety of South India particularly in Coorg and Wynad tracts.

Fruits are medium to large, bright orange colour, oblate to globose in shape, finely
papillate and winkled,
glossy, segments 9 – 11.
Dancy tangerine
In USA, the Dancy is the best known and highly prized of all the mandarin
oranges. Tree large, nearly thornless and has upright growth. Fruit colour is deep orange
red to scarlet, rind thin, loose, easily separable, segments 10-14. It is a late variety.
Deshi mandarin (Pathankot)
This variety is mainly grown in Punjab hills. The tree is large with semi –
upright growth habit and compact foliage and are spineless. Fruit are ovoid to sub
globose. Colour uniformly cadmium, surface pitted, semi glossy and finely wrinkled, rind
medium, adherence slight, segments 7-10.
Khasi mandarin
Swingle believed the king mandarin as a tangor, a hybrid between mandarin and
sweet orange. King mandarin was first introduced from Cochin China to California in
1882. King mandarin is cultivated in Assam. This is a prolific bearer, frost resistant and
produces high quality fruit.
12
King mandarin (C.nobilis)
This is believed to be a hybrid between mandarin and sweet orange, and

cultivated in Assam. It is a prolific bearer, frost resistant and produces high quality fruit.
Willow leaf mandarin (C. deliciosa)
The tree is willowy in growth, almost thornless, and fruits usually borne singly at
the tip of slender branches. Fruit colour orange, surface smooth, glossy frequently
slightly lobed, necked base, apex depressed, wrinkled, rind thin with 10-12 segments. It
is an early variety.
(King x Willow leaf mandarin)
Kinnow mandarin
It is a first generation hybrid between the king and willow leaf mandarin and
developed by H.B. Frost at the California Citrus Experiment station in 1915. It was
introduced into Punjab from USA. Tree is vigorous, large, top erect, dense symmetrical
with few scattered thorns. Fruit colour resembles of king, deep yellowish orange,
surface, smooth, glossy, very shallow pitted, shape slightly oblate, size medium with
flattened base, rind thin, peel tough and leathery, segment 9-10 easily separable, seed 12-
24. It is a late variety.
agpur Santra
This variety occupies prime position in Indian market and is one of the finest
mandarins grown in the world. It is also known as Ponkan. Tree is large, vigorous, and
spineless with compact foliage. Fruit size is medium, cadmium colour, smooth surface,
and glossy, rind thin, soft, and slightly adhered with 10-12 segments.
Satsuma Orange
It is a Japanese variety introduced into Florida in 1876. It is a frost resistant and

useful breeding material. It is also resistant to canker, gummosis and scaly bark. Plant is
thornless having spreading growth habit, orange fruit colour, rough surface, oblate to
13
spherical shape, medium to large in size ,thin and easily separable rind, flavor rich and
seedless.
Temple mandarin
It is a hybrid between tangerine and sweet orange. Temple mandarin is most
beautiful and highly flavored fruit of the citrus group. Tree is medium, thorny, spreading
with deep orange to reddish fruit colour, rugose glossy surface, medium to large in size,
depressed or nearly flat apex, loose rind, solid axis with 10-12 segments, orange pulp. It
is late in maturity.
Lemon (C.limon)
Varieties of lemon
Eureka
It is a seedling selection of Sicilian lemons. Tree is medium, spreading and
thornless. Its fruit colour is lemon yellow, surface rugose, pitted, shape obovate, size
medium, apex round, rind medium thin axis small, solid, segments 8-10, juice acidic with
excellent flavor and quality. Eureka is a heavy yielder and begins bearing at early age. It
has tendency of bearing in the terminal end of the shoot.
Lisbon
Its appearance and yield is superior to Eureka. It is resistant to frost, heat and
high wind velocity. Tree is large and vigorous with spreading shoots. It has upright thorn
growth, lemon yellow fruit colour, smooth surface, medium size, pitted rind, small axis,
solid, 6-10 segments with 0-8 seeds.
Pant Lemon
Fruit size medium, juicy, heavy fruiting, tolerant to pests and diseases.
Villi Franca
It belongs to Eureka group and was introduced into Florida from Europe in 1875.
Tree is vigorous, thorny, spreading, erect, fruit oval to oblong, size medium to large,
colour bright lemon yellow, apex pointed, base rounded, rind thin, smooth, segments 8-
12, flesh fine grained, juice colourless, seed 25-30.
14
Meyer lemon
Tree semi-dwarf, thornless, spreading, cold resistant, fruit colour light orange,
surface smooth, finally pitted, shape oblate or oblong base rounded, rind thin, axis small,
segments 8-10, seeds 8-12.
Acid lime (C. aurantifolia)
It is native of India and widely cultivated in the tropics. Tree medium sized,
hardy, semi vigorous, upright growth, thorny, fruit round to oblong, yellow apex rounded
and slightly nippled, base round, rind thin, papery segments 8-10, seeds 8-10.
Varieties of acid lime
Vikram
It was developed at MAU, Parbhani, fruit medium size, heavy fruiting, fruit
colour golden.
Pramalini
It was developed at MAU, Parbhani, high yielder, golden fruit colour, tolerant to
canker.
Sai Sarbati
Kagzi lime selection developed at Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidhyapeeth (MPKV),
Rahuri, Maharashtra. Fruit surface smooth, fruits more uniform, good size, thin skin, high
juice, TSS and acidity. High yield potential and tolerant to canker and tristeza.
Tahiti lime Persian lime (C.latifolia)
It is large fruited acid lime. The plants are large, spreading, cold resistant,
thornless, fruit large in size, seedless triploid, and produce non-viable pollen. It is
considered as hybrid between lime and lemon. Fruit colour orange yellow, smooth
surface, segments 8-10. It is a late variety.
15
Rangpur lime (C. limonica)
It is indigenous to India and is commonly used as root stock. Rangpur lime is

mainly grown for home consumption and ornamental purpose. It is also known as
Marmalade orange. It has loose rind, easily separable segments and pulp is light orange
yellow.
Sweet lime (C.limetoides)
Generally, sweet lime is grown as a root stock for its non acidic fruits.
Pummelo (C.grandis)
It is native of Polnasia and Malaysia and commonly grown in South China.

Fruit is pyriform, largest fruit size among citrus fruits, rind thick, juice is acid bitter, juice
sacs easily separable. Seeds are monoembryonic. Fruits are of two types (a) elongated
pear shaped with neck (b) Oblate or globose, flattened and neckless. In India there is no
improved cultivar except Nagpur Chakotra.
Varieties of Grape fruit (C.paradisi)
Duncan
It was developed as chance seedling in Florida. It is the hardiest variety, fruit

colour yellow, surface smooth, shape oblate to globose, size large, basal area depressed,
apex round, rind medium thick, firm, axis medium in size, segments 12-14, seeds 25-50.
Foster
It belongs to pink or red pulp group and originated as bud sport of Walters grape
fruit by R.B. Foster in 1906-07. Fruit colour is light yellow, surface smooth, oblate or
globose shape, size medium large, base rounded, apex round, rind medium thick,
segments 12-14, seeds 2-5. It is a late cultivar.
Thompson
It is a bud sport of Marsh. Fruit colour light yellow, surface smooth, segments
10-12, seeds 2-5.
16
Ruby
It belongs to pink or red pulp group. It is originated as bud sport from
Thompson. Deep red colour which uniformly distributed throughout pulp.
Questions
1. Seed consists more than one embryo is known as Polyembryony.
Ans:True
2. Cross between King x Willow leaf is ‘Kinnow’ mandarin.
Ans:True
3. Satsuma Orange is resistant to canker, gummosis and scaly bark.
Ans: True
4. Citrangor is a tri-generic hybrid of three different genera.
Ans: False (Citrangequat)
5. Citrus reticulata is loose skinned orange.
Ans: True
17
Lecture.18
Crop improvement in grapes
Botanical name: Vitis vinifera L.
Family: Vitaceae
Chromosome number: 2n=2x=38.
Centre of diversity
European grape (Vitis vinifera L.) is considered to have originated primarily

between Caspian and Black sea region (Vavilov, 1951). American grapes belonging to a
large number Euvitis and Muscadinia species have originated in North America, referred
to as ‘Vine land’ by Zielinski (1955).
Germplasm resources
Field gene banks of grapes are maintained at Division of Fruits and Horticultural
Technology, IARI, New Delhi, Indian Institute of Horticulture Research, Bangalore,
Ganesh Khind Botanical Garden, Pune etc. Further, 616 genotypes of grapes are
maintained at IIHR, Bangalore
Objectives
Objectives of breeding for grapes are:
To develop early maturing, seedless and sweet cultivars for table purpose.
To induce resistance to anthracnose, Phylloxera and chaffer beetle.
To develop varieties with medium vigour and productive basal bud, which can
be trained on head or pandal system of training
For the tropics the objectives of breeding should be:
To develop high yielding and high quality varieties with increased fruitfulness of
basal buds, less degree of apical dominance, suitability for different purpose such
as table, raisin, wine and juice and resistance to diseases.
To develop root stocks resistant to salinity, nematodes and drought

Introduction
Grapes are reported to have been introduced in Tropical India about 2600 years
ago in 620 BC (Olmo, 1976). Commercial cultivation did not start until the beginning of
20th Century. During 1930, Shree R.S.Pillay, identified Anab-e-Shahi from the
collections of Nawab Baquer Ali Khan and subsequently its commercial cultivation
picked up in South India. Bhokri and Cheema Sahebi in Maharashtra, Bhokri and Muscat
Hamberg in Tamil Nadu and Bangalore Blue in Karnataka are the introductions
The commercial varieties of grapes were introduced into India mostly by invaders
of Iran and Afghanistan (Thaper, 1960). Muhammed Bin Tughlaq introduced,
Bhokri,Fakhri and Sahebi cultivars in Aurangabad (Daulatabad) in 1338 (Pillay,1968).
Large scale introduction in a planned manner were initiated at Lyallpur as early as 1928,
when S.B.S.Lal Singh, was Head of Department of Horticulture, introduced as many as
116 graps varieties from different grape growing
countries (Singh and Singh, 1940, 1942). The
earlier promising introduction include,
Thompson Seedless, Perlette, Beauty Seedless,
from USA,Kishmish Beli and Kishmish Charni
from USSR (Singh and Singh,1972). The
cultivars like Ruby Seedless,Gordo
Blano,(Reisling, MS 18-55,MS 19-77,MS 16-
Thompson Seedless
2,Wortly Hall hybrids from Australia,Totlocha
from Brazil Flame Seedling 1281,Dogridge,Pride,Dixie,Wedor and Black Cornith-2 from
USA,Surnak Kitabiskij, Pozdrijwir and Shirajx-6 from USSR, Malvasiafina (Douro),
Boal De Alicante, Tinta Deira Preta, Jampal, Tinta Roriz,from Portugal and 0912
Horizon (SW) , 0913 Leon Millet, Foch and 0912 Swanson Red from Canada for wine,
raisin and table purposes have been introduced and are under evaluation. Further, number
of Vitis sp.have been introduced for resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses e.g. V.gigas,
V.caribea, V.munsoniana, V.smalliana,V.cineraria, V.shuttleworthi, V.arizonica and
V.monocola from USA (Singh and Pana,1993)

Selection
Open pollinated seedling segregates for a large number of characters and hence
the population of seedlings from open pollinated seeds is a potential source for selection
of desirable type e.g. Cheema Sahebi (Sel-7), Selection-49. Some promising seedlings
from open pollinated population of Pandhari Sahebi and Kabul Monukka were also
selected.
Clonal selection is also one of the methods of fruit improvement. Due to natural
mutation in existing cultivars considerable variation occurs between individuals that help
in varietal improvement through clonal selection. The promising clonal selections of
grapes are as follows:
Cultivars Clonal Parent Characteristics

Tas-A-Ganesh Thompson Developed by Mr.Arue of Borgoan in Sangli
Seedless district of Maharashtra. Its berries are quite
elongated and respond to GA3treatment.
Rao sahebi Cheema Sahebi Isolated by Rao Saheb Kadlag of Sangamner in
(Sel-7) Nasik district of Maharashtra. Fruits have longer
berries with stronger attachment to rachis which is
a major problem in Cheema Sahebi.
Sonaka and Thompson Sonaka has much elongated berries as compared
Manik Champa Seedless to Tas-A-
Ganesh. It gives better response to GA3.
Dilkhus Anab-e-Shahi Selection was made at Hyderabad. It produces
golden yellow elongated seeded berries in
attractive bunches. The yield potential is almost
same as in parent.
Selection made by Institutes

a. Pusa Seedless from Thompson Seedless: Developed at IARI, New Delhi. It differs
from the parent in respect of having more elongated berries. Vine vigorous and heavy
3

yielding. TSS 22-24%, acidity 0.77% and juice content 65%. It ripens in the middle
of June.
b. HS 37-6 from Perlette: Developed at HAU, Hissar. This cultivar is 15 days earlier in
maturity than the parent
Hybridization
Grapes are highly heterozygous and are propagated asexually at commercial
scale. Inbreeding results in rapid loss of vigour and fertility of vine, even in first
generation. The crossing of unrelated parents with good combining ability followed by
raising a large number of hybrid seedlings in each combination and rigorous selection
may result in good ideotype of commercial use.
In India, hybridization work was started in 1958 at IARI, New Delhi. The purpose
of hybridization at IARI, New Delhi was to develop early maturing, high yielding, better
quality seedless varieties with resistant to biotic stresses. However, IIHR, Bangalore,
started breeding programme in 1968, with objective to develop superior varieties for
table, raisins, wine and juice, On the basis of types of parent used, it can be grouped into
two (a) Interspecific / Intergeneric hybridization and (b) Interspecific or intervarietal
hybridization.
Interspecific / Intergeneric hybridization
Muscadinia is a rich source of resistance to diseases and pests and also possesses
a unique and delightful flavor and aroma. The crosses between Vitis and Muscadinia
which differ in chromosome number are made with difficulty, but most of the resulting
hybrids remain sterile. The pollen of M.rotundifolia will fertilize the egg cell of
V.vinifera but the reciprocal cross is less successful. Partly fertile F1 hybrids (2x=39) can
cross reciprocally between themselves or with V.vinifera x M.rotundifolia which have
been further improved by back crossing with V.vinifera, resulting in some fertile vines
that produce acceptable quality table grapes (Olmo 1971).Crossing within Muscadinia
has given outstanding self fertile cultivars like Tarheel (M.rotundifolia x M.munsoniana),
South Land, Magron, Regale (Cold hardy) Sterling (cold hardy) and Triumph (bronze
cloured berry weighing 7.9g). Telki 5A (V.berlendieri x V.riparia) highly resistant to
Phylloxera, tolerant to lime soils and moderately resistant to nematodes, Harmony (1613

x V.champini planchon cv.Dogridge) has been developed as a result of interspecific

hybridization.
Intervarietal hybridization
A few promising hybrids identified through inter varietal hybridization at IARI
were, Hybrid 62-37 (Hur x Pusa Seedless), H62-65 (Hur xPusa Seedless),H-62-20 (hur x
Black Hamburg) H-62-67(Hur x Bharat Early),H-63-10 (Bhokri x Pearl of Casaba), H-
63-32 (Bhokri x Pearl of Casaba). In 1996, cultivars Pusa Navrang (Madeleine Angevine
x Rubi Red and in 1997 Pusa Urvashi (Hur x Beauty Seedless) were released from IARI,
New Delhi. The promising hybrids developed at IIHR, Bangalore were Arkawati (Black
Champa x Thomson Seedless),Arka Kanchan (Anab-e-Shahi x Queen of the Vine Yards),
Arka Shyam (Bangalore Blue x Black Champa), Arka Hans (Bangalore Blue x Anab-e-
Shahi),Arka Chitra (Angur Kalan x Anab-Shahi), Arka Krishna (Black Champa x
Thompson Seedless),Arka Majestic (Angur Kalan x Black Champa),Arka Neelmani
(Black champa x Thompson Seedless),Arka Soma (Anab –e-Shahi x Queen of the Vine
Yards),Arka Thrishna (Bangalore Blue x Convert Large Black ),Arka Shweta
Syn,Shweta Seedless (Anab-e-Shahi x Thompson Seedless).
Hybridization technique
It includes the choices of parents, emasculation, pollination, shortening of
breeding cycle for early assessment, growing of hybrid seeds and planting in the field for
assessment and selection.
(i) Choice of parents
In order to incorporate the desirable characters of one cultivar into other through
hybridization, the knowledge of inheritance pattern and general and specific combining
ability of the cultivars is very essential for making choice of parents in restricting the
cross-combination and more seedlings population for better selection. The viability and
germination ability of the hybrid seeds are also important factors in deciding the parents
to be used in hybridization. It has been found that in some cultivars when used as female
parents or selfed, the seed germination is poor and some time do not germinate e.g.
Cordinal. If such cultivars are required in hybridization, they should be used as male
parents in order to induce seedlessness in the progeny. It would be better to select a
5

variety having high seed index as female parents. Cultivar Angoor Kalan can also be used
as female parent for earliness, seedlessness and good quality, but for the same purpose
cultivars Beauty Seedless, Perlette and Pusa Seedless should be used as male parents
(ii) Emasculation and pollination

Emasculation of small flowers of grapes is a tedious job. Since the grape is self
fertile emasculation is most essential for making desired crosses. Use of reflexed stamens
and functionally female cultivars like Hur, Angoor Kalan, Banquiabyad, Katta, Kurgan as
female parents can help in eliminating the tedious task of emasculation. Iyer and
Randhawa (1966) reported that aqueous solutions of maletic hydrazide (MH) at 400 to
750 ppm, 2,3,4 Tri iodo – benzoic acid (TIBA) at 400 to 500 ppm and 1,2 dichloro-iso-
butyrate (FW-450) at 0.30% applied twice to 13 to 15 days old inflorescence induced
pollen sterility. When emasculation is completed the emasculated bunches are bagged
and pollinated with desired male parents very next day.
Mutation breeding
Mutation breeding may be attempted as a complementary tool in grape breeding
for one or more important characters, without altering the whole genetic setup. The
important mutagens used in grape breeding are physical mutagens (χ ray and γ rays ) and
chemical mutagens (Ethyl Methane Sulphonate (EMS),N-Nitroso-N-Methyl Urethane
(NMUT) and N-Nitrose-N-Methyl-Urea
(NMU).
Further, induced mutations have resulted

in a few improved varieties, New Perlette
(Loose Perlette) with comparatively loose
bunch has been evolved with χ rays (2.5 KR)
treatment on Perlette Self thinning property of
New Perlette is a result of meiotic irregularities
caused by chromosomal translocation. Red
Loose Perlette

Niagara having red fruit from Niagara and Robin Cardinal an early maturing variety from
Cardinal are other important induced mutants in grapes.
Polyploidy breeding
Polyploidy breeding has immense importance in the improvement of table grapes.

The chief benefit from polyploidy is the increase in berry size. However, autotetraploids
are found to be considerably sterile and are less productive than the parents. The crossing
of diploid with induced tetraploids may help in evolving new triploid seedless grapes.
The triploids are highly sterile. Allo tetraploids even between infertile species have been
more desirable as commercial varieties. Colchicine is generally used as an aqueous
solution of 0.25-5.0% with 5-10% glycerine to induce polyploidy. Marvel Seedless from
Delight, Early Niable (Campbell x Niagra), Lonetto, Early Giant from Campbell, Muscat
Common Hall from Muscat Alexandria, Black King from Campbell, Wallis Giant from
Concord, Case from Sultana etc. are important examples of polyploidy
Biotechnological tools
Embryo rescue technique
Seedlessness is a desirable character for table and raisin grapes. Inheritance of

seedlessness is postulated to depend on two complementary recessive genes and only
about 7.5% of the total progeny from crosses between Seeded x Seedless grapes produced
fruits without noticeable seed traces. The embryo rescues theoretically increases the
proportion of seedless progeny as it makes possible to cross two seedless varieties.
Ovules are excised before abortion and are cultured on either filter paper in liquid
medium or solid medium
Genetic engineering / Plant transformation
Some encouraging preliminary results have been obtained on Agro bacterium-

mediated transformation of grape vines. But the production of genetically transformed
grape vines which express a marker gene is yet to be reported.

Protoplast culture
Protoplasts are of great importance as tool for genetic amelioration and somatic
hybridization. But regeneration of grape vines from protoplasts has not yet been
successful.
Anther culture
Anther culture can result into haploid grape vines which can then be developed
into homozygous diploids by doubling chromosomes. These homozygous diploids will be
very useful for producing F1 hybrids and for making genetic studies. But there is low
success rate of regeneration of grape vines from anther and only one case of haploid has
been reported in grape.
2ew cultivars of grape
Arkawati (Black Champa x Thompson Seedless)
Bunch is medium in size, yellowish green berry, sweet, TSS 22-25%, seedless
berry, suitable for raisin making, fresh table use and making good quality dry and white
table and dessert wine. Released in 1980.
Arka Chitra (Angur Kalan x Anab-e-Shahi)
Released in 1994, this is tolerant to powdery mildew, moderately vigorous vine,

good yield potential (34kg/vine), Bunch is well filled, medium to large (310g), berry very
attractive; golden yellow with pink blush, slightly elongated, large (3.18g), sweet, TSS
20-21ºB, acidity 0.4-0.6%, suitable for table purpose, all the buds are fruitful, suitable for
head system of training and gives two crops in a year.
Arka Hans (Bangalore Blue x Anab-e-Shahi)
Released in 1980, bunch is medium in size, berry yellowish green, sweet, TSS 18-
21ºB, having foxy flavor seeded cultivar, suitable for making quality wine, resistant to
anthracnose.

Arka Kanchan (Anab-e-Shahi x Queen of the Vineyards)
Bunch is large, golden yellow colour berry, ellipsoidal to ovoid, sweet, TSS 17-
20ºB, having muscat flaovur, seeded cultivar, suitable for fresh table use and dry white
table and dessert wines, released in 1980.
Arka Krishna (Black Champa x Thompson Seedless)
Vigorous vine, good yield potential (30kg/vine), Bunch well filled berry, dark
colored, seedless, sweet TSS 20-21ºB, acidity 0.6-0.7%, suitable for head system of
training and gives two crops in a year, suitable for juice making, released in 1980.
Arka Majestic (Angur Kalan x Black Champa)
Released in 1994, vine is vigorous, high yield potential (34kg/vine), Bunch is

well filled, medium to large (370g) berry deep tan colour, sweet, TSS 18-20ºB, acidity
0.4-6% all the buds are fruitful, suitable for head system of training, it gives two crops in
a year. Tolerant to anthracnose.
Arka 2eelamani (Black Champa x Thompson Seedless)
Vigorous vine with high yield potential (25kg/vine), bunch well filled, sweet, TSS
20-22ºB,suitable for head system of training, it is good for table purpose and making red
desert wine, tolerant to anthracnose, released in 1980.
Arka Shyam (Bangalore Blue x Black Champa):
It was released in 1980, bunch is medium in size, berry bluish black, spherical to
obovoid, sweet, TSS 20-25ºB,having mild foxy flavour and seeded, it is good for fresh
table use and making dry table, dessert wines and juice, resistant to anthracnose disease.
Arka Soma (Anab-e-Shahi x Queen of the Vineyards)
This variety was released in 1994, vine is vigorous with heavy yield potential
(36kg/vine), bunch is well filled large (410g) berry greenish yellow, round to ovoid large

(3.8g),sweet, TSS 20-21ºB,acidity 0.5% having muscat flavor, gives two crops in a year,
suitable for good white dessert wine.
Arka Trishna (Bangalore Blue x Convent Large Black)
It was released in 1994, it is an improvement over variety Bangalore Blue, vine is

vigorous, having high yield potential medium bunch, well filled, very sweet, TSS 22-
23ºB, acidity 0.3- 0.4% it is male sterile hybrid, good for wine making suitable for head
system of training, resistant to anthracnose and tolerant to downy mildew.
Arka Sheweta or Shweta Seedless (Anab-e-Shahi x Thompson Seedless)
It was released in 1994, moderately vigorous vine, yield potential is about

28kg/vine, bunch is medium, it responds to GA3 application for berry thinning and
enlargement, berry seedless, sweet, TSS 18-19ºB, acidity 0.5-0.6%, berry greenish
yellow.
Digrasset
This variety was collected at ARI (MACS), Pune from the grape germplasm
collection maintained at Ganesh Khind Botanical Garden, Pune in 1976. It is a clone of
Vitis champini, Vine shows vigorous, spreading and prostrate growth having deep root
system. It remains dormant during winter season after October pruning and again grows
in February-March under climatic conditions of Maharashtra. This is a potential root
stock for growing grape under saline and drought conditions.
Pusa 2avrang (Madeleine Angevine x Rubired)
It was released in 1996, it is basal bearing, tenturier (peel and pulp both coloured),
seeded cultivar, it is early maturing, suitable for making coloured juice and wine, bunch
is loose and medium TSS 19ºB, resistant to anthracnose.
Pusa Urvashi (Hur x Beauty Seedless)

It was released in 1997, it comes in early group, bunch is medium, berry is
greenish yellow, TSS 20-22ºB.
10

Questions
1. Variety suitable for wine production Arka Hans.
Ans:True
2. Give an example for a grape variety developed through mutation
Ans: Cardinal
3. Anthracnose is a major fungal disease in grapes.
Ans:True
4. Embryo rescue technique is one of the biotechnological tools used for
development of seedless grapes.
Ans:True
11

Lecture.19
Crop improvement in papaya
Botanical name: Carica papaya L.

Family: Caricaceae
Chromosome number: 2n=2x=18
Papaya is an ideal fruit crop for growing in kitchen garden, backyards of home as
well as orchards, especially those places nearer to cities or big town. It is also grown as a
filler plant in orchard. The ripe fruits of papaya are consumed throughout the tropics and
subtropics. Fruits are also used in preparation of jam, soft drinks, ice cream flavor,
crystallized fruits and syrups. Unripe fruits are commonly used as vegetables. Papain is
prepared from the latex of immature fruits. It is a proteolytic enzyme used for tenderizing
the meat as well as in leather tanning and cosmetics etc. The ripe fresh fruit is a rich
source of vitamin A (2020 I.U), vitamin C (40-60mg/100g) carbohydrates and minerals.
Papaya, on account of producing fruit in a short period after planting has attracted the
attention of fruit growers for large scale cultivation in the country. It is known as
wholesome fruit which is valued for its nutritional and medicinal properties. Due
to its nutritional, industrial and export demand, papaya is recognized the most potential
fruit crop for commercial cultivation. The variable sex forms, susceptibility to frost and
water logging, fungal and viral diseases are well identified problems in its cultivation.
Economically the productive life span of papaya is 3 years and every time new plantation
has to be raised.
Centre of diversity
Papaya is native to Tropical America. The South

America and Costa Rica are the micro centre of origin of
papaya. It is a close relative of Carica peltata. In India, it
was introduced in the early part of the 16th century from
Philippines through Malaysia. It was widely spread in
different parts of the country particularly tropical and
sub-tropical zones. India is the largest producer of
Vasconcellea peltata
1

papaya in the world. It is also cultivated in Brazil, Mexico, Australia, Hawaii, Malaysia,
Taiwan, Peru, Florida, Gold Coast, South Africa and Bangladesh. In India it is widely
cultivated in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Jharkhand and Madhya Pradesh.
Germplasm resources
The family Caricaceae consist of six genera and 35 species. Carica and
Vasconcellea are the important generas. The genus Carica has only one species, Carica
papaya the cultivated species. Vasconcellea contain 21 species, which are considered as
the wild relatives of papaya. Their diversity is common in South America
Variations with respect to plant stature, sex types, fruit shape and size, seed
content are observed in papaya. Presently, germplasm is being maintained at TNAU,
Coimbatore, IIHR, Bangalore, IARI Regional Station, Pusa, Bihar, CHES, Ranchi,
CHES, Bhubaneshwar and CISH, Lucknow for further characterization and evaluation.
Important wild relatives of papaya
Some Vasconcellea species are used in interspecific Carica cauliflora

hybridization for resistance breeding e.g. Vasconcellea Carica cauliflora
is resistant to viruses. Vasconcellea candamarcensis and Vasconcellea
pentagona are resistant to frost. Based on the crossability and
compatibility it has been observed that Vasconcellea monoica,
Vasconcellea cauliflora and Vasconcellea candamarcensis are easily
crossable with each other and producing viable seeds. But inter-
generic hybridization of these species with Carica papaya did not
produce mature seeds. However, by using embryo culture technique,
immature embryo can be developed into mature embryo. Further,
cross between Carica papaya and Vasconcellea goudotiana was found
to be a failure. The species, Vasconcellea cauliflora, Vasconcellea
pubescens, Vasconcellea stipulata and Vasconcellea candicans are C.candicans
resistant to papaya Ring Spot Virus (Capoor and Verma, 1961)

Objectives
To develop dwarf statured and early bearing varieties.

To evolve varieties with high yield and good quality fruits.
To develop varieties with low cavity index and more pulp thickness.
To breed varieties having good keeping quality and suitable for export.
Breeding for high latex yield with high proteolytic enzyme activity
To develop varieties resistant to biotic and a biotic stresses (virus, frost, water
logging etc).
Botany
Papaya belongs to family Caricaceae and genus Carica having about 40 species.
It is a dioecious plant but gynodioecious cultivars are also available. The stem is hollow
and soft wooded. It is usually unbranched when young but at later stage upright shoots
develop at its terminal growth due to obstruction. The leaves are palm like with long
stalks. Flowers are cymose, fragrant borne in leaf axils. The fruit is a fleshy berry. The
fruits from pistillate flowers are ovoid-oblong to nearly spherical in shape and the fruits
from hermaphrodite flowers are pyriform, cylindrical or grooved.
Floral biology and pollination
Dioecious papaya produces male and female

trees separately on different plants in the ratio of 1:1,
while gynodioecious cultivars produces both female
and andromonoecious trees in the ratio of 1:2.
Female and male flowers develop within 32 and 42
days respectively after bud initiation. The period
from bud initiation to anthesis is shorter for male
than female flower bud (Dhaliwal et al., 1991).
Stamen development occurred prior to ovary
development in the hermaphrodite flower and Papaya Flower
stamen differentiation was observed 56-59 days before anthesis. Anther dehiscence starts
3

18-36 hours before the flowers opening and continues depending upon the weather
conditions and stigma becomes receptive a day before the flower opening and remaining
receptive for 6 days. The peak anthesis was observed between 5.00-6.00 a.m. The
receptivity of stigma was found maximum on the day of anthesis in most of the species
(Subramanyam and Iyer, 1986). To ensure good fruit set in the dioecious cultivars of
papaya (e.g. CO1, CO2, CO4, CO5, CO 6, Pusa Giant, Pusa Dwarf, Pusa Nanha,), the
female and male ratio should be 20:1. However, maximum number of andromonoecious
trees are retained in gynodioecious varieties (eg. CO3, CO7, Coorg Honey Dew, Sun
Rise Solo, Sun Set Solo etc.) Further, insects are the major pollinating agents in papaya.
Sex forms
There are two major sex forms in papaya
1. Dioecious: male and female trees segregate in the ratio of 1:0.sibmating is done
for maintaining of purity.
2. Gynodioecious: Female and andromonoecious (female + bisexual flowers in a

single tree) trees segregated in the ratio of 1:2. Selfing of bisexual flowers is done
for obtained pure seeds

Inbreeding and selection
In dioecious lines, suitable male plants are selected from the same progeny which
have resemblance to female plants in vegetative characters, such as stem and leaf colour,
stem thickness and height at flowering etc. Progenies raised from S1 inbreds are screened
and desired male and female plants are selected for further sibmating i.e., crossing
between the female plant and male plant of the same cultivar. The process is to be
continued for 7-8 generations to achieve uniformity for a group of characters. In this
method, the progeny will have male and female in equal proportion. Many dioecious
cultivars have been bred by this method.

Development of cultivar with high papain content was started at TNAU,

Agricultural College and Research Institute, Coimbatore. As a result of intensive
breeding programme, four cultivars i.e., CO1, CO2, CO5 and CO6 were developed
through inbred selection which are dioeicous(Rao, 1974, Sundarajan and Krishnan,1984,
Shanmugavelu et al., 1988) at Coimbatore. Recently during 2011, CO 8 papaya was
developed in the dioecious group through sib-mating of CO2 variety, which is a red-
fleshed variety and this variety is unique for the red pulp colour which is not exist in any
of the dioecious papaya varieties developed. Systematic work for breeding of uniform
varieties with high yield and good quality for wider adaptability was started at IARI
Regional Station, Pusa, and Bihar in 1966. As a result of inbreeding and selection for 8
generations during 1966-1982, uniform lines of Pusa Delicious, Pusa Majesty, Pusa Giant
and Pusa Dwarf with desirable attributes were developed. At Coorg, Aiyappa and
Nanjappa (1959) selected Coorg Honey Dew which is gynodioecious. Based on the two
season evaluation of papaya germplasm in Nainital, cultivars Barwani Red, Coorg Honey
Dew, BR 1, 2, 3, 4, Coimbatore 1B and Washington have been found promising for
commercial cultivation. Considerable genetic variability was found in many plants with
respect to fruit characteristics like fruiting height, fruit weight, size shape, TSS, taste and
number of fruits per tree.
Important cultivars of papaya developed through selection are as under
CO1 Plant is dwarf; fruit is round, selected from cultivar Ranchi
CO2 It is pure line selection from local type, suitable for papain
production in terms of high enzyme activity. Dual purpose variety
for dessert fruit as well as papain
CO3 It is a hybrid between CO2 x Sun Rise Solo, plant is vigorous,
fruit is medium in size with good keeping quality.
CO4 It is a hybrid between CO1 x Washington, fruit is large, keeping
quality is good, and flesh colour is yellow.
CO5 It is a selection from Washington; it is also good for papain
production in terms of high latex yield
CO6 It is a selection from ‘Giant. Fruits are bigger weighing 2.5 to 3.0
kg. Suitable for papain and dessert purpose

CO7 It is gynodioecious hybrid between CP75 x Coorg Honey Dew. It

has red flesh. Fruit cavity round
CO8 It is a red-fleshed dioecious variety bred through selective sib-
mating in the population of CO.2. Suitable for dessert purpose,
processing and papain production
Coorg It is gynodioecious selection from Honey Dew at Coorg\
Honey
Dew
Pusa It is selection from cv. Ranchi. It is gynodioecious variety suitable
Majesty for high papain.
Pusa A gynodioecious selection from cv. Ranchi, it has good fruit

Delicious
Induction of polyploidy
Hofmeyer (1945) reported on polyploidy in papaya. They found that the quality of
tetraploid fruit was better than the diploid and it was also compact with small seed cavity.
But tetraploids were less fertile than diploid as indicated by comparative seed count.
However, according to Singh (1955) there was complete sterility in both female and male
tetraploids and expressed doubt about their commercial utilization. Further, Zerpa (1957)
reported that colchicine induced tetraploid hermaphrodite plants, which were used as
male parent in a cross with a female diploid produced a few seeds without endosperm, by
embryo culture, two triploid plants were obtained which turned out to be hermaphrodite.
Hybridization
A few hybrid varieties have been developed by the intervarietal or intergeneric

hybridization. But still there is great scope for development of superior cultivars with
better quality and yield. At TNAU, Coimbatore three varieties have been developed viz.
CO3 (CO2 x Sunrise Solo), CO4 (CO1 x Washington) and CO7 (CP.75 x Coorg Honey
Dew). At IIHR Bangalore, two hybrids IIHR-39 named as Surya (Sun Rise Solo x Pink
Flesh Sweet), and IIHR-54 (Waimanalo x Pink Flesh Sweet) were developed (Dinesh and
Yadav 1998), Hybrid HPSC-3 (Tripura local x Honey dew) was developed by the ICAR

Research Complex Tripura (Singh and Sharma, 1996). Cultivar Cariflora was developed
by crossing K2xK3 line of papaya which is tolerant to PRSV (Conover et al.,1986).
Inter-specific hybridization was also attempted in the genus Carica. The cross
between the Carica papaya and Carica caulifora did not form mature seed but immature
embryos could be germinated and grown by embryo culture. F1 hybrids of Carica
papaya x carica pubescens and Carica papaya x Carica quercifolia were vegetatively
vigorous. Carica papaya x Carica cauliflora F1 progenies are slow growing and those of
Carica papaya x Carica stipulata developed apical necrosis before reaching maturity.
Iyer and Subramanyam (1984) attempted interspecific hybridization and reported that
F1hybrids of C.cauliflora x C.monoica when crossed with C.papaya gave fertile hybrids,
although the C.cauliflora and C.monoica are incompatible with C.papaya but hybrids of
C.cauliflora x C.monoica are compatible.
Heterosis breeding
Dai (1960) reported heterosis in the cross between Philippines x Solo varieties. F1
hybrid tended to have reduced seed number and enhanced plant vigour. Heterosis up to
111.4% for yield and yield traits was obtained in Solo yellow x Washington whereas high
heterosis for potential economic competitiveness was noticed in Thailand x Washington
(Iyer and Subramanyam, 1981). At IIHR, Bangalore, an F1 hybrid namely, Surya (Sun
Rise Solo x Pink Flesh sweet) was released recently. It is gynodioecious in nature and
produces about 75-80 fruits of medium size weighing about 600-800g. the flesh is red in
colour, firm, sweet to taste with a TSS of 14º brix.
Mutation breeding
Ram and Majumder (1981) developed a dwarf mutant line

by treating papaya seed with 15K gamma rays. Initially, 3 dwarf
plants were isolated from M2 population. Repeated sibmating
among the dwarf plants helped in establishing a homozygous dwarf
line Pusa Nanha.
7
Carica papaya
Biotechnology
In-vitro propagation and genetic engineering technique can serve as a potential

tool to overcome major constraints in Carica papaya.
Embryo culture
In papaya, incompatibility is mainly due to the failure of endosperm formation.

The hybrid embryo resulting from interspecific cross of C.papaya and C.cauliflora has
been successfully rescued on White’s medium in 30 days by Yung (1986).
Transgenic papaya
Transgenic papaya has been developed against Papaya Ring Spot Virus (PRSV)
using coat protein mediated resistance in University of Hawaii by Dennis Gonsalves. The
coat protein gene from PRSV was isolated, cloned and used for transforming papaya to
provide resistance against the severe strain of the same virus. The target cultivars used in
transforming papaya were the Red fleshed, Sun Set Solo and the Yellow Fleshed Kapoho
Solo. Transformation with coat protein gene was done using micro projectile
bombardment technique using embryogenic tissues of papaya.
Two transgenic lines Sun UP from Sun Set Solo and UH Rainbow from Kapoho
were developed which have shown excellent resistance to PRSV. Sun UP, which is
homozygous for CP (Coat Protein gene), was resistant to most isolate of PRSV, from
other geographical locations except Taiwan’s YK isolate of PRSV. Rainbow was found
susceptible to PRSV isolates from outside Hawaii but was resistant to the severe strain of
Hawaiian PRSV (HA isolates).
Important varieties and species
CO1 Plant is dwarf; fruit is round, selected from cultivar Ranchi.

CO2 It is pure line selection from local type, suitable for papain
production in terms of high enzyme activity. Dual purpose
variety for dessert fruit as well as papain

CO3 It is a hybrid between CO2 x Sun Rise Solo, plant is

vigorous, fruit is medium in size with good keeping quality.
CO4 It is a hybrid between CO1 x Washington, fruit is large,
keeping quality is good, and flesh colour is yellow.
CO5 It is a selection from Washington; it is also good for papain
production in terms of high latex yield
CO6 It is a selection from ‘Giant. Fruits are bigger weighing 2.5 to
3.0 kg. Suitable for papain and dessert purpose
CO7 It is gynodioecious hybrid between CP75 x Coorg Honey
Dew. It has red flesh. Fruit cavity round
CO8 It is a red-fleshed dioecious variety bred through selective
sib-mating in the population of CO.2. Suitable for dessert
purpose, processing and papain production
Coorg Honey Dew It is gynodioecious selection from Honey Dew at Coorg
Pusa Majesty It is selection from cv. Ranchi. It is gynodioecious variety
suitable for high papain.
Pusa Delicious A gynodioecious selection from cv. Ranchi, it has good fruit
quality.
Pusa Giant A dioecious selection from cv. Ranchi, it is tolerant to strong
wind.
Pusa Dwarf It is a selection from cv. Ranchi, plant is dwarf and dioecious
in nature, fruit shape is oval.
Pusa Nanha It is developed through mutation; plant is dwarf, suitable for
high density planting, fruit quality is good.
Pant Selection.1 Selection made at GBPUAT, fruit shape is oblong.
Pant Punjab Sweet It is a selection made at PAU Ludhiana. It is frost tolerant
and dioecious in nature.
Surya It is a gynodioecious hybrid (Sun Rise Solo x Pink Flesh
Sweet), developed at IIHR, Bangalore, it has high yield with
good quality fruit.

HPSC-3 It is a hybrid between Tripura Local x Honey Dew. This

cultivar is resistant to Papaya Mosaic
Questions
1. Papaya known as wholesome fruit.

Ans: True
2. Papaya is Fleshy berry type of fruit.
Ans:True
3. Name a transgenic papaya
Ans: U.H Rainbow
4. Name two papaya varieties suitable for papain extraction as well as table purpose
CO2 and CO5.
Ans:True
5. Vasconcellea cauliflora is resistant to papaya Ring Spot Virus (PRSV).
Ans:True
6. Pusa Nanha is developed through mutation breeding.
Ans:True
7. Two major sex forms in papaya are Dioecious and Gynodioceious.
Ans:True
Match the following

1. Dioecious - CO7
2. Gynodioecious - tolerant to strong wind
10

3. IARI, Bihar - CO 5
4. Pusa Giant - resistant to papaya mosaic
5. HPSC-3 - Pusa Majesty
Ans
1. Dioecious - CO5
2. Gynodioecious - CO7
3. IARI, Bihar - Pusa Majesty
4. Pusa Giant - tolerant to strong wind
5. HPSC-3 - resistant to papaya mosaic
11

Lecture.20
Crop improvement in sapota and pomegranate
SAPOTA
Sapota : Achras zapota.,

Family : Sapotaceae
Chromosome number is 2n=2x=26.
It is a wind pollinated crop. Flowers are protogyny and the stigma grows out of
the bud about two days before anthesis. Flowers open between 4-4.30 a.m. Anthers
dehisce between 8-10 p.m. The flowers keep fresh for nearly two days. The stigma is
found to be receptive two days before opening and continues to be like that up to 12
hours after opening. Peak receptivity is between 8-10 a.m. The total time taken from fruit
set to maturity is 10-12 months under North Indian Conditions but in Tamil Nadu it takes
only 4-5 months.
Flowers are emasculated and bagged before 4-

5 p.m and well before the stigma protrudes out of the
bud. The actual procedure consists of making a
circular incision around the flower bud with sharp
knife or blade, so that 2/3 of the upper floral cup is
removed including the portions of calyx, corolla and
epipetalous stamens. The style is left in position in
remaining1/3rd of the floral cup. Stamens from male
parent, which should shed their pollen in the early
Sapota Flower
hours of next day, are collected in the previous day
evening and kept over night in a petridish. These are used to pollinate the receptive
stigma of the emasculated flower between 8-10 a.m in the next day.
Breeding objectives
The main emphasis on breeding of sapota are to develop dwarf stature trees with
precocity in bearing, high yield and high keeping quality of less seeded fruits with less
latex
1
Breeding methods
Clonal selection
Number of varieties like Cricket Ball, Kirthi Barthi, oval, Thagarampudi, Badami,
Baramasi and Guthi exhibit natural variability. Exploration of this natural variability by
clonal selection is an accepted method of breeding in sapota.
Cricket Ball,
CO.2: developed at TamilNadu Agricultural university, Coimbatore is a clonal selection

from Baramasi. It is a high yielder; seeds are less in number and small sized (2-3)
PKM.1: developed at Horticultural College & Research institute, Periykulam (TNAU) is

also a clonal selection from Guthi. It is a dwarf, high yielding (3600 fruits/tree/year),
almost bearing throughout year.
PKM 1
PKM – 4: a clonal selection from open pollinated seed of PKM – 1. It has spindle shaped
fruits suitable for dry flakes production. Pulp is attractive with light pinkish honey brown
colour, crisp and sweet flesh (TSS 24˚brix).
2
Hybridization
Tamil Nadu Agricultural Univerity, Coimbatore has developed four hybrids so

far.
1. Co.1: It is a hybrid between Cricket Ball and Oval. This variety is superior to
either of the parents. The fruits are long oval (egg shaped), medium in size with a
mean fruit weight of 125g. The flesh is granular in texture and reddish brown in
colour, taste being very sweet with a TSS of 18˚Brix.
2. Co.3: It is hybrid between Cricket Ball and Vavivalasa. Fruits are oblong –
ovate in shape. Pleasantly flavored, very sweet with a T.S.S of 24.2. The average
yield of the tree is 157 kg as compared to only 101.32 kg and 109.5 kg in CO-1
and CO-2 respectively. The stature of the tree is more upright and compact,
suitable for high density planting at a spacing of 5-6 m either way instead of the
conventional spacing of 8mx8m.
3. PKM.2: It is a hybrid between Guthi and Kirthi Barthi developed at

‘Horticultural College & Research institute, Periyakulam (TNAU). A high yielder
with a performance of 1500 to 2000 fruits per tree per year weighing 80 to 100
kg. Fruits are bigger in size and oblong to oval shaped. The average fruit weight
is 95g. TSS ranges from 25 to 27˚Brix.
4. PKM. 3: It is a hybrid between Guthi and Cricket Ball. It has vertical growth
habit and hence lends itself for high density planting. Trees bear big sized fruits
with oval shape and have cluster-bearing habit. The fruit yield is 14 tonnes per
hectare.
5. DHS:1: A hybrid between Kalipatti and Criket Ball developed at UAS,

Dharwad. Tree is vigorous, bearing round to slightly oblong fruits with high
yield. The fruits are very sweet having a soft, granular and mellowing flesh with
3
a TSS of 26˚brix. The colour of the pulp is light orange. The mean fruit weight is
150g.
6. DHS.2: It is also a hybrid between Kalipatti and Cricket Ball. Tree is vigorous
and bearing round fruits. It is a high yielder. The fruits are sweet with a TSS of
23˚ brix having a light orange brown pulp, which is soft, granular and mellowing.
The mean fruit weight is 180g.
Pomegranate
Botanical name: Punica granatum L.

Family: Punicaceae
Chromosome number : 2n = 2x =18
Centre of diversity
Pomegranate is native of Iran and cultivated extensively in the Mediterranean

countries like Spain, Morocco, Egypt, Iran, Afghanistan and Baluchistan. It is also grown
to some extent in Burma, China, Japan, USA, USSR and India.
Germplasm resources
Being cross pollinated crop, a lot of variability exists in seedling populations,

which can be utilized in further improvement programme. At present 150 genotypes of
pomegranate have been maintained at Central Institute of Arid Horticulture, Bikaner
(Anon., 2002). Out of these genotypes, 55 are deciduous and rest 95 are of evergreen in
nature. Field gene banks of pomegranate are maintained at Abohar, Rahuri, Bikaner,
Bangalore, Allahabad, Jodhpur and Ludhiana.
Objectives
To develop suitable types which produce small soft seeds with attractive red
(pink) aril.
To develop easily manageable upright growth habit of the tree.
To develop thornlessness in the twigs, a desirable character as it helps in cultural
management of the tree.
4
To develop varieties resistant to fruit borer (Virachola isocrates) and fruit rot
(Phomopsis sp.)
To develop varieties free from fruit cracking, aril blackening.
Identification and development of suitable varieties for cold arid region.
Varieties with longer steerage life.

Introduction
Some important cultivars including soft seeded , dark red grained types, viz.
Wonderful from the USA, A.Males, Be Hastah, A Alah, A Agha,Mohammed Ali, A Post
Sephid Sirin from Iran and Ranninj G-1-8-23,Rannyij G-1-3-34, Chereny,Gulsha Red,
JG-1-8-7 from USSR and few cultivars from Tunisia have been introduced. At Hissar,
cultivar Shirin Anar and Russian Seedling were found resistant to bacterial leaf spot. A
pomegranate line of Iranian origin has been indentified at Rahuri which has dark pink
arils, soft seeds and high TSS (Singh and Rana, 1993).
Selection
Many pomegranate types cultivated in India are of seedling origin. They offer a
wide range of variability with respect to shape and size of fruits, mellowness of seeds,
aril colour, rind colour, sweetness and acidity. On the basis of yield and physico-chemical
characters of fruits, number of cultivars have been recommended for commercial
cultivation in different states of India,viz. Ganesh, G-137,P-23,P-26 and Muscat in
Maharashtra, Bassein Seedless, Jyothi and Madhugiri in Karnataka, Dholka in Gujarat,
Jalore Seedless, Jodhpur Red , and Jodhpuri White in Rajasthan and Kabul Red, Vellodu,
Yercaud 1, and Co-1 in Tamil Nadu. Two ornamental types (Japanese Dwarf and Double
flower giving red, yellow and white flowers) are planted in the omamental gardens (Nath
and Randhawa,1959). Due to considerable variability and their adaptability to existing
agro-climatic conditions, selection of superior genotypes will be the best approach to get
desirable ideotypes. The cultivar GBG-1 is a selection from open pollinated population of
Alandi in 1932. The name Ganesh was given in 1970. Five Muskat types, namely P-13,
P-16, P-23, P-26 and SK-1 were identified by Naik (1975). Further, P-23 and P-26 were
released in 1986 for commercial cultivation by MPKV, Rahuri. At the University of
5
Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore as a result of evaluation of seedling populations raised

from Bassein Seedless and Dholka Varieties, GKVK-1 now named as Jyothi was
released. At Coimbatore self seeded selection Co-1 was identified (Khader et al., 1982).
Clonal Selection
G-137 is a superior clonal selection over Ganesh, other clones are also superior
i.e.G-107,G-132,G-133. Sayed et al.(1985) reported a clone Acc.No.455 which has been
renamed as Yercaud-1 and released for commercial cultivation in Tamil Nadu.
Hybridization
In order to incorporate blood red colour of
Russian types into Ganesh, several crosses were made at
Rahuri in 1976.Out of 122 F1 hybrids, seven had deep red
aril colour but the seeds were hard and inferior in taste
than Ganesh. A promosing line from the F2 population
(No.61) combining desirable quality attributes has been
released by the name Mridula (Ganesh x Gulsha Rose
Pink).
Mutation
Mridula
Use of physical (x rays) and chemical mutagens (N, N-dimethyl N.nitrosourea)
may help in the development of the superior cultivar of soft seeded types (Levin, 1990).
Attempts have been made to regenerate the plant by using leaf (Omura et al.,
1987) and shoot tip explants (Mahinshni et al., 1991). Enzyme based marker was also
used to identify the genetic variability among the existing genotypes. Somatic
embryogenesis was also practiced by using petal as explant (Nataraja and Neelambika,
1996).
Important characteristics of some promising selections raised from open

pollinated fruit of F1 hybrids of pomegranate (Keskar et al., 1993).
6
Sel-5 Sel-130 (Ganesh Sel-303

Characteristics
(Ganesh x Shirin Anar) x Gulsha Rose Pink) (Ganesh x Gulsha
Red)
Fruit colour Apple red Greenish brown
Yellowish brown
Fruit weight (g) 130 107 140.0
Fruit size LxB (cm) 6.9x6.5 6.1x6.5 5.5x6.8
Aril colour Blood red Dark red Blood red
Mellowness of seeds Soft Soft Soft
Taste Sweet Sweet Sweet
8o. of grains/100g 58 94 45
Grain Peel ratio 1.17 1.17 1.80
Juice colour Dark red Blood red Blood red
Juice (%) 80 80 80
TSS (%) 18.4 15.8 19.0
Acidity (%) 0.64 0.80 0.64
Cultivars of pomegranate grown in different states
8ame of the states Cultivars

Rajasthan Jalore Seedless, Jodhpur Red,Jodhpuri White.
Haryana Ganesh,Muskat Red,Paper Shell.
Gujarat Dholka,Muskat Red,Paper Shell.
Maharashtra Ganesh,G137,P23,P26,Muskat Mridula
Karnataka Bassein Seedless,Jyothi, Paper
Shell,Madhugiri
Tamil Nadu Co-1, Yercaud, Vellodu, Kabul Red.
Description of important cultivars

Alandi
Also known as Vidaki, medium fruit size, fleshy testa, blood red or deep pink
with sweet, slightly acidic juice with hard seeds.
Dholka
Large fruit size, greenish white rind, fleshy testa, pinkish white or whitish with
sweet juice, soft seeds and acidic juice.
7
Kabul
Large fruit size, rind deep red mixed with pale yellow, thick, fleshy testa dark red,
slightly bitter juice.
Kandhari
Fruit large in size, rind deep red, fleshy testa, blood red or deep pink with sweet,
slightly acidic juice, hard seeds.
Muskat red
Fruit small to medium in size, rind somewhat thick, fleshy testa with moderately
sweet juice, seeds are semi hard.
Paper Shell
Fruit medium in size,rind thick,fleshy testa, reddish pink with sweet juice and soft
seed.
Spanish Ruby
Fruit small to medium in size, rind thin, fleshy testa rose coloured, soft seed.
Ganesh
Prolific bearer, medium fruit size, soft seeds, sweet in taste.
Jyothi
Also known as GKVK-1, attractive yellowish red fruit colour, medium fruit size,
red aril colour and soft seeds.
Vellodu
Fruit medium to large in size, rind moderately thick, fleshy testa, juicy, seed
moderately hard.
8
Poona
Fruit large in size, fleshy testa, deep scarlet or pink and red.
Bedana
Fruit medium to large in size, rind brownish or whitish, fleshy testa, pinkish
white with sweet juice and soft seeds.
Bhagwa
It is developed by MPKV, Rahuri. It is tolerant to thrips and mites, it is free from

blackening of arils and there is no incidence of fruit cracking. Fruits have cherry red bold
aril.
Phule Arakta
It is also developed by MPKV, Rahuri. Plant is heavy yielder with bigger fruits
and sweet soft seed. It is less susceptible to fruit spots and thrips.
Questions
1. In Sapota, anthesis occurs between 4-4.30 a.m.

Ans:True
2. Pomegranate is native crop of Iran.
Ans:True
3. Pomegranate variety with blood red color is Alandi.
Ans:True
4. Paper Shell is soft seeded variety of pomegranate.
Ans:True
5. Sapota flowers are protogyny in nature.
Ans:True
6. The main emphasis on breeding of sapota is to develop dwarf stature trees with
precocity in bearing.
Ans: True
9
Match the following

7. CO.2 - clonal selection from Guthi
8. PKM.1 - hybrid between Kalipatti and Cricket Ball
9. PKM .4 - clonal selection form Baramasi
10. DHS:1 - clonal selection from PKM.1
Ans
11. CO.2 - clonal selection form Baramasi
12. PKM.1 - clonal selection from Guthi
13. PKM .4 - clonal selection from PKM.1
14. DHS.1 - hybrid between Kalipatti and Cricket Ball
10
Lecture.21
Crop improvement in pineapple and guava Pineapple
Botanical name : Ananas comosus L.

Family: Bromeliaceae
Chromosome number: 2n = 2x = 50
Centre of diversity
Pineapple is believed to be originated in Brazil. The wild Brazilian pineapple

(Ananas microstachys Lindle) is considered as ancestor of cultivated pineapple. It
reached India during 1548. The geneic name “Ananas” is derived from the Indian
“Nana”.
Germplasm resources
In India, much attention has not been given in the development of field gene
banks. However, commercial cultivars are maintained at BCKV, Kalyani, Agriculture
Research Station, Kovvur (APAU), Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture,
Jorhat, Regional Research Station: Diphu (Assam Agricultural University), Department
of Horticulture, College of Horticulture, Navsari (GAU), College of Horticulture at
Vellanikara and Trichur. A list of 135 varieties was published as early as in 1935 by
Johnson, although some of them were found synonymous.
Objectives
To develop high yielding, early maturing varieties with wider geographical

adaptability.
Plant should be hardy, vigorous, capacity to produce good ratoon crop, leaves
should be spineless.
Fruit stalk should be short and strong.
There should be flat eyes and small cones.
Development of varieties resistant to biotic and abiotic stresses (e.g. multiple
crown, fasciation, wilt, heart rot, root rot and nematode).

Inheritance Pattern
According to Collins, 1960 spineless form in which spines are restricted to top
few inches of the leaf and dominanat to spiny wild type. Further many wild cultivars
possess spiny leaves. Ananas ananosoies is also a source of disease resisteance. The
cultivar pernambuco is donor for good flavor and aroma, tender non fibrous juicy
fruits, early fruiting, resistant to heart and root rot. Queen can be for crisp, non
fibrous deep yellow flesh fruits, early Repening.
Red Spanish is good source of vigour, resistance to wilt, heart and root rot.
Singapore Spanish can be good donor for square. Shouldered fruits with golden
yellow flesh and wild species are good source of vigour, resisteance to various
disease and pests, spiny tip and spiny characters are the phenotypic expression of
single pair of alleles, with spiny tp being dominant (Collins and kerns,1946).
Homozygous 55 and heterozygous 5 and produce spiny tips, recessive and may give
rise to spiny plants progeny (Collins and kerns, 1946). The piping and non piping
characters are controlled by another non- linked pair of alleles with the gene P
(piping) being epistatic to 5 and s. The homozygous pp genotype produce pronounced
piping than Pp genotypes. Frequent mutations of 5 and s occur (scn. 1996). Ananas
erectifolius is having Se gene of smooth tip leaves. (Collins, 1960).

Selection
Most of the cultivars/varieties of pine apple were developed by simple selection
of mutant clones within cultivars and by hybridization between cultivars followed by
selection from the highly heterozygous progeny. Selection from the Singapore Spanish
population in Malaysia had led to a new cultivar, “Masmerah”. It is more vigorous,
possessing more leaves, stand more erect and bears heavier fruit than the parent cultivar
(Wee, 1974). Several such selections have been made in different pineapple growing
areas.

Hybridization
A cross between Red Spanish and Cayenne has led to the development of a new
hybrid PR-1-67 in Puerto Rico (Remirez, 1970). This hybrid shows better plant vigour
and resistance to wilt disease. However, self fertile somatic mutants obtained from
cultivar Cayenne show a loss of vigour on selfing and heterosis on crossing. A hybrid (H-
7) has been produced by crossing Valera Monendi x Kew. This hybrid produces large
fruits, individually weighing on an average 3.0-3.5 kg.
Mutation
Induction of mutation in this crop seems to be

quite feasible. However, due to wide natural
variation, limited attempts have been made for
induced mutations. In Kerala, irradiation of plants of
cultivar Kew and Mauritius led to growth retardation
and premature suckers. Merz (1964) reported the
induction of self fertile mutants by X- ray irradiation
of pollen during meiosis. Several morphological
mutations were found when 1.0 to 1.5 month old
detached slips were treated with chemical mutagens
like Ethyl imine-(El), N-Nitroso-N-Methyl Urethane
Queen
(NMU) and Diethyl Sulphate (DES). One mutant
produced spineless plants from cultivar Queen and was economically significant (Singh
and Iyer, 1977).
Attempts have been made for rapid multiplication of the plants through micro
propagation by using different kinds of explants i.e. leaf base, shoot base, excised lateral
buds, meristem tips from crown etc. In the crosses where fertilization fails due to
incompatibility, embryo culture technique can help to rescue the hybrid. The genetic

transformation of pineapple clones has been attempted with the objective to acquire
ability to introduce desirable genes
Major group and varieties of pineapple
Cultivars Important Characteristics

Abacaxi Abakka, Amarella, Papelon, Fruit conical in shape, weighing about
(Brazilian) PinaValera, Sugar Loaf, 1.2 to 1.5kg, yellow rind, pale yellow or
Venezolana,Vermelho,Yupi white flesh, sweet, tender, and juicy,
leaves spiny, disease resistant, grown
for fresh domestic consumption.
Boron, Baraonne de Rothschild, Fruit shape is cylindrical with a slight
Cayenne Champaka, Cayenne Lisse, upward tapering and flat eyes, most
Emeralda,Gautemalan,Giant suitable for canning fruit weight is about
Kew,Hilo Cayenne, Kew, 1.8 to 3.0 kg. Colour of rind is dark
Rothschild, Smooth,St.Micheal orange and flesh is pale yellow, sweet,
Smooth Cayenne,Typhone. mildly acid with low fiber and a tender
juicy texture, leaves smooth with few
spines near the tip, highly susceptible to
mealy bug and wilt, suitable for export.
Vaipure Bumanguesa,Legrija,Maipure,Mar It is sweeter than the Cayenne, aromatic,
quita, Monte Lirio, Perolera, fibrous but tender and very juicy, leaves
Plamba de, Rondon completely smooth, grown for fresh
consumption, fruit ovoid to cylindrical
in shape, fruit weight is about 0.8-2.9
kg, rind colour is yellow to dark orange
or red, flesh is white or deep yellow.
Queen Alexandria, Bakhat, James, Fruit shape is conical, weighing about

Jhaldhup, MacGregor,Mauritius, 0.5 to 1.12 kg rind is yellow, flesh is
Netal,Queen,Ripley,Victoria,Z.Qu deep yellow, less acidic than Cayenne,
een sweet, low in fiber, spiny leaves, highly
resistant to diseases than the Cayenne.
Betek, Cabezona, Castilla, Fruit shape is globose, fruit weight is

Spanish Espanola Roja, Gandol, Green 0.9-1.8 kg rind deep reddish, flesh pale
Selangor, Masmerah, Nangka,PRI- yellow to white with spicy acid taste,
67,PRI-56,Red Spanish,Singapore fibrous texture, leaves spiny, resistant to
Spanish. mealy bug and wilt, susceptible to
gummosis, suitable for export and fresh
consumption.

GUAVA
Botanical name: Psidium guajava L.

Family: Myrtaceae
Chromosome number 2n-2x-22
Guava is also known as the ‘Apple of the Tropics. It is a very rich and cheap
source of vitamin C and also contains a fair amount of calcium. Important guava
growing states in the country are Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.
Allahabad district of Uttar Pradesh has the reputation of growing the best quality of
guava fruits in the world (Mitra and Bose, 1990). The importance of guava is due to the
fact that it is the hardy fruit which can be grown in alkaline and poorly drained soil.
Center of diversity
Tropical America is supposed to be the center of origin of guava where it is found

in wild as well as cultivated forms. Guava came to India at a very early time before 17th
century.
Germplasm resources
Guava is mainly a self pollinated crop but occurrence of cross pollination results
in great variation in the seedling population. About 103 genotypes are available in the
Indian collections (iyer and Subramanian, 1987) while Yadav (1990) has listed 153
genotypes including Psidium species, cultivars and hybrids mainly at CISH, Lucknow,
IIHR, Bangalore, NDUAT, Faizabad, and HAU, Hisar. Guava germplasm is being
maintained at several centers in the country in field banks which are often not
systematically maintained (Pathak and Ojha,1993).
Breeding objectives
1. Devlopment of seedless variety
2. Less pectin content for edible purpose
3. More peetin content for processing
4. Uniform ripening
5

5. High keeping quality
6. Resistance to tea mosquito bug and wilt.
Botany
Most of the Cultivars of Indian guava belongs to the genus Psidium and species
gujava. Based on the shape of common guava fruits, they are classified into two groups
(De Candolle 1904) i.e. Psidium pyriferum, Psidium pomiferum. Genus Psidium contains
about 150 species (Hayes, 1970). All cultivated varieties of guava are either diploid 2n-
2x-22 or triploid 2n-3x-33 (Atchinson, 1947).
Floral biology and pollination

Guava bears flower solitary or in cyme
of two to three flowers, on the current season
growth in the axil of the leaves. About one
month is required from flower bud
differentiation to complete development upto
calyx cracking stage. Peak time of anthesis is
between 5.00-6.30 AM in most of the varieties
of guava. The dehiscence of anthers starts 15-
30 minutes after anthesis and continues for two
Guava Flower
hours. The pollen fertility is high in almost all
the cultivars. The pollen fertility is 78% and 91% in Allahabad Round and Lucknow
Safeda, respectiviely.
Inheritance pattern
Bold seed is found to be dominant over soft seed and governed monogenically.
Red flesh colour is dominant to white pulp colour and also goverened
monogenically.
Red fleshed cultivars are supposed to be heterozygous

There is linkage between red flesh colour and bold seed size.
Triploidy and some other genetic factors are responsible for female sterility.

Clonal Selection
Propagation by seeds during early days gave rise to considerable variation in the
form and size of fruit, the nature and flavour of pulp, seediness and other morphological
characters such as spreading or erect growth habit of the tree. Improvement work in guava
was started for the first time in the country in 1907 at Ganesh khand fruit Research
Station, Pune primarily with the collection of seeds of varieties, grown in different places
to isolate superior strains. About 600 seedlings were raised and evaluated for fruit and
yield characters. One strain from open pollinated seedlings of Allahabad Safeda
collected from Lucknow was selected and released as Lucknow -49 which is a popular
variety throughout India.
At Horticultural Research Station, Saharanpur, evaluation of seedling types

resulted in a superior selection, S-1, having good fruit shape, few seeds, sweet taste and
high yield.
At Narendara Deva University of Agriculture and Technology, Faizabad, out of

the 23 strains collected as a result of survey in guava growing region, 3 seedlings of
Allahabad Safeda (AS1,AS2,AS) and 2 of Faizabad Selections (FS1and FS2) were found
to be promising with respect to fruit quality and yield. At IIHR, Bangalore, from 200
open pollinated seedlings of variety Allahabad Safeda collected from Uttar Pradesh, one
seedling selection, selection-8, was found to be promising. These plants are dwarf and
give higher yield. The fruits are of medium size with white pulp and few soft seeds and
excellent. This selection has been named as Arka Mridula.
Achievements
Sl.0o Varieties Important characters

1. L.49 Developed at GFES, Pune, Seedling selection of
Allahabad Safeda, Semidwarf tree, high yielding

and white flesh.

2. Banarsi Surkha It is a selection from local red fleshed type, heavy
bearer, large fruits, flesh soft and pink.
3. CISHG-1 Developed at CISH, Lucknow. Fruit skin colour
is deep red, TSS 15°Brix, soft seeds.
4. Bangalore Local It is a local selection, with white flesh and soft
seeds, fruit is large.
5. Arka Mridula Develoed at CISH, Lucknow, it is a selection from
(Sel -8) apple colour seedling, skin and flesh colour is pink
with good acid sugar blend.
6. Plant prabhat Seedling selection from GBPUAT, Pantnagar,
Prolific bearer, soft seed with good quality
Hybridization
At IIHR, Bangalore, as a result of hybridization among Allahabad Safeda, Red
Flesh Chittidar, Apple colour, Lucknow-49 and Bananas, 600 F1 hybrids were raised.
One hybrid Arka Amulya has been released recently. It is a progeny from the cross
Allahabad Safeda x Triploid. Plants are medium in vigour and are spreading type. Fruits
are round in shape. Skin is smooth and yellow in colour. Fruits on an average weigh
about 180-200 g, Flesh is white in colour and firm. TSS is around 12˚Brix, soft seeded,
keeping quality is good.
Hybrid 16-1 (Apple color x Allahabad safeda) has been developed. Plants are
semi vigorous, moderate yielding, fruit skin bright red with few seeds high Tss and good
keeping quality (Subramanyam and I year, 1993).
At Fruit Research Station, Sangareddy (Andhra Pradesh), inter-varietal

hybridization resulted in the isolation of two superior hybrids.
Safed Jam: This is a hybrid between Allahabad Safeda and Kohir (a local
collection from Hyderabad –karnataka region). It is similar to Allahabad Safeda in
growth habit and fuit quality. The fruits are bigger in size with good quality and few soft
seeds.
Kohir Safeda: It is a hybrid between Kohir x Allahabad Safeda, Tree is vigorous,

fruits are larger with few soft seeds and white flesh.
8

Haryana Agricultural University, Hissar has released two hybrid varieties.
Hisar Safeda: It is a cross between”Allahabad Safeda” x ‘Seedless’, which has

upright growth with a compact crown. Its fruits are round, weighing about 92g each, pulp
is creamy – white with less seeds, which are soft, TSS is 13.4% and ascorbic acid 185
mg/100g.
Hisar Surkha: It is a cross between’Apple Colour’ x ‘Banarasi Surka’. Tree is

medium in height with broad to compact crown, fruit is round weighing 86g each. Pulp
is pink having 13.6% TSS.0.48% acidity and 169 mg/100g ascorbic acid. Yield is 94
kg/tree/year.
CISH, Lucknow isolated two hybrids H-136 for red pulp and soft seeler with high
Tss.
Breeding for wilt resistance
Work at CISH, Lucknow has shown that Chittidar, Portugal, Seedless and Spear
Acid are tolerant to wilt.
Resistance species of guava can be utilized for imparting the wilt resistant
character. It was observed that psidium guajava and psidium chinensis are compatible.
However, cross between psidium guajava and psidium molle was incompatible but
reciprocal combination was a compatible combination (subramanyam and I year, 1982).
Polyploidy Breeding
Producing triploids will be futile since the fruit shape in triploid is highly irregular
and misshapen because of differential seed size. However, in order to evolve varieties
with less seeds and increased productivity, crosses were made at IARI, New Delhi,
between seedless triploid and seeded diploid variety Allahabad Safeda. Of the 73 F1
hybrids raised 26 were diploids, 9 trisomics 5 double trisomics and 13 tetrasomics.
Distinct variation in tree growth habit and leaf and fruit characters was observed. Three
trisomic plants had dwarf growth habit and normal shape and size of fruits with few

seeds. The imbalance in chromosome numbers in aneuploids imparted sterility resulting

in seed reduction in fruits.
Characteristics of important species and cultivars

Description of some important species are as under
Psidium guineense
This is also known as the Guinea guava or Brazilian guava. The plants are like
shrub or small tree. The leaves are green in colour, broad, oblong-oval, acute or obtuse,
8-12 cm long with lower surface pubescent. Red hairs are found on the mid veins.
Psidium guineense
Psidium montanum
Plants are just like shrub, attain a height of about 1.5m, flat round branches. It is
found in mountains of Jamaica. Fruits are round with very poor quality
Psidium montanum
10

Psidium fredrichsthalianum
It is known as Chinese guava. Plants are tall (7-11 m height), fruits are small and
globose in shape with high acid content. It can be used for jelly making. Plants are
tolerant to guava wilt.
Psidium Cattleanum
It is known as the Cattely guava or Strawberry guava. It is a shrub or small tree
(3-6 m in height), fruits are small, deep scarlet in colour, and globose in shape. This
species is more tolerant to low temperature than Psidium guajava.
Psidium cattleianum var. lucidum

Tree height is more than Cattley guava in Hawai Island. Height of plant is noticed
up to 12m. Generally, it is propagated through seeds. Fruits are yellow in colour and used
for jelly making.
Psidium molle
Tree is medium in height; leaves are green and oval in shape. Apex of leaf is
pointed; lower part of leaves is velvety in appearance. Red hairs are found on the central
veins. In one leaf 6-8 pairs of primary veins are found. Petals are 5-11, stamens are 196-
239, and stigma is long with big ovary of 3-5 chambers. Fruits are small in size, average
fruit weight is 13g. It contains vitamin C about 70 mg/100 g of pulp
Psidium pumilum
It is also known as Chinese guava. Tree is like pyramidal in shape, leaves are light
in colour, small in size, non-pubescent, having 13-17 pairs of primary veins. Petals 7
smooth and creamy colour which drop immediately after anthesis, Stamens are 252-327
in number, small stigma with medium size of ovary having 4-5 chambers. It flowers
twice in a year. It takes about 130 days for attaining the maturity of fruits. Average fruit
weight is about 19g and an average vitamin C content is 171mg/100g pulp.
11

Psidium cujavilis
Growth characters and flowering habit of the plants is just like Psidium
guineense. The size of fruit is small to medium, average weight is 30-50 g, and sour in
taste.
Psidium policarpum
The growth characters are similar to Psidium guajava except the shape of the
fruits is periform. Average fruit weight is about 200-250g. Flavonoid patterns show close
affinity between P.guajava and P.molle (Dass and Prakash, 1981). However, inspite of
the morphological similarities in P.molle and P.guineense, they showed minute
differences in flavonoid pattern.
Questions
1. Pineapple hybrid PR-1-67 is resistance to wilt disease.
Ans:True
2. Spanish variety of pineapple is resistant to mealy bug.
Ans:True
3. Guava is also known as the ‘Apple of the Tropics.
Ans:True
4. Pineapple is rich and cheap source of vitamin C and also contains a fair amount of
calcium.
Ans: False (guava)
5. Most common breeding objective of guava fruit is development of seedless variety.
Ans:True
6. Give an example for pink fleshed variety of guava Arka Mridula.
Ans:True
7. Spear Acid guava variety is tolerant to wilt.
Ans:True
8. Psidium fredrichsthalianum is tolerant to Guava wilt.
Ans:True
12

9. Psidium Cattleanum is known as Strawberry guava.

Ans:True
13

Lecture.22
Crop Improvement In Apple and Other Rosaceae Crops
APPLE
Cultivated apple has been classified as pumila group. Majority of the cultivated
apples are diploids (2n=34) and few are triploids (2n=51). Delicious group of apples are
very popular and occupy 50-70 per cent area in the states of Himachal Pradesh, Jammu &
Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh and North- East hills.
Breeding objectives
Apple is grown as a composite tree consisting of rootstock, scion and occasionally
interstem. Thus genetic improvement must involve both rootstock and scion. The scion
breeding objectives are to evolve varieties, red in colour with early maturity, high yield,
superior dessert and storage quality and resistance to scab. Besides, a new wave of clonal
rootstocks capable of surviving under wide range of environmental conditions, inducing
precocity, enhancing productivity and fruit quality in scion are required to be bred.
Genetics of apple
Malus has 25 to 30 species and several sub-species, many of which are cultivated
as ornamental trees for their profuse blossoms and attractive fruits. Many of the species
intercross freely and semi self incompatibility is common. Trees grown from collection
of Malus are frequently inter-specific or inter-varietal hybrids. The cultivated apple is
botanically Malus domestica Borkh.
Malus domestica
1

The majority of cultivated apples are diploids (2n=34). There has been a belief
that they are complex polyploids, being partly tetraploids and partly hexaploid with the
basic number of x=7 which is common in Rosaceae. The hypothesis is based on the
associations and behavior of chromosomes and six sets of three chromosomes. So, they
are functionally diploids. Among the cultivars, there are also triploids (2n=51). Triploids
appear to be more common in cultivated apples, accounting for about 10 per cent of the
commonly grown cultivars. Some triploid varieties are Baldwin, Gravenstein, Rhode
Island Greening, Blenheim Orange and Mutsu. These are more vigorous and tend to have
larger fruits but produce poor pollen and require diploids to pollinate them. These are
useless as parents for breeding as they produce few seeds and give rise to weak seedlings.
Sterility and Incompatibility

Sterility and incompatibility are two main causes of unfruitfulness in apple. The
generational sterility is caused by the failure of any of the processes concerned with the
development of pollen, embryo sac, embryo and endosperm. This is common in triploids
and some diploids. Gagnieu (1951) concluded that the segregation suggests a simple
disomic inheritance of four different and possibly allelomorphic genes P1 P2 P3 and P4.
Sexual incompatibility which is due to the failure of the pollen, although

functional, to grow down the style and bring about fertilization is widespread in the
apple. Self incompatibility is particularly common, although cases of cross
incompatibility are also known.
Apomixis
Facultative apomixes is characteristic of a number of Malus species which are
probably of hybrid origin but does not appear to occur among the cultivated apples. The
apomictic species which have been investigated are polyploids. Malus sikkimensis
(Hook). Koehne is a triploid, M.coronaria (L.) Mill., M.hupenhensis (Pamp.) Rehd,
M.lancefolia Rehd. M.platycarpa Rehd., M.toringoides (Rehd.,) Hugs are known in
triploid and tetraploid forms. M.sergenti Rehd is known in diploid, triploid, tetraploid and
pentaploid forms. Under normal circumstances, these species reproduce themselves
freely by apomictic seeds but most of them can produce sexual hybrids if crossed with
2

sexual diploids. Seedlings from these apomictic species are not necessarily identical and
a certain amount of variation can be found. The importance of this character in Malus
species is that seedlings of some are sufficiently uniform to enable their use as rootstocks
which are virus – free.
IMRPOVEME'T
Introduction and Selection
Spur type cultivars
At Regional Fruit Research Station, Mashobra, spur
varieties introduced through the National Bureau of Plant
Genetic Resources, New Delhi during the eighties are under
evaluation. These varieties include Red Spur Delicious,
Golden Spur Delicious, Miller’s Sturdeespur, Oregon Spur
and Red Chief of which Red Spur Delicious has been found to
be promising.
In UP, cultivars Red Spur and Oregon Spur were Golden Spur Delicious
introduced from Italy and are being multiplied for evaluation.
Colour Sports
Colour sports like Royal Red, Vance Delicious, Top Red, Skyline Superme Red
Delicious were introduced in HP. The cultivars Royal Red, Vance Delicious and Top Red
and Skyline Supreme Red Delicious were found to be promising.
Early varieties
Among the early varieties introduced at NBPGR Regional Station, Phagli,

Shimla, EC 32221, EC 38683. Yandik-Ovskoe and Papisovka Canniaga are promising
Low Chilling Varieties
Work at NBPGR Regional Station, Phagli, Shimla indicated that the cultivars
Vered, Michal, Maayan, Shilomit, Hybrid-1 and Tropical Beauty were found to be
promising for cultivation under mid and low hill conditions. In the mid hills of HP, the

cultivars Tropical Beauty and Parlins Beauty were found to be the best in respect of yield
and fruit quality.
Scab resistant varieties
Scab is a serious disease of apple and none of the commercial varieties are
resistant to it. Although some resistant varieties have been evolved in other countries,
none of these compares favourably with the popular Delicious and its commercial sports.
The scab resistant varieties Prima, Priscilla, Sir Prize, Jonafree, Liberty and Coop.12
introduced from USA are under evaluation at Regional Fruit Research Station, Mashobra
and Bajaura in HP.
Hybridization
Selection of Parents
Most of the quality traits like size, shape, cropping, etc., are under polygenic
control. Thus, when two cultivars are crossed, there will be a continuous range of
expression of these characters in the seedlings and will not segregate into discrete
categories.
Williams (1959) calculated that the percentage of desirable seedlings that can be
expected as the main product of an apple breeding programme for polygenically
controlled characters is seldom more than 40 per cent and for every additional character,
the figure rapidly decreases. Thus, for a programme in which the main objective is
polygenically controlled mildew resistances, size of fruit, season of maturity, flavor and
colour of skin, a reasonable estimate would be 40,20,20,10 per cent respectively.
'ew Varieties
The modern breeding, objectives are breeding of varieties with high yield,
superior dessert and storage quality, disease and pest resistance. Breeding work on apple
has been in progress at Regional Fruit Research Station, Mashobra in Himachal Pradesh,
Fruit Reseach Station, Shalimar in Kashmir and Horticultural Experiments and Training

Centre, Chaubattia in UP. The major objectives were better shelf-life, early maturity, high
dessert quality and scab resistance.
Shelf-life and dessert quality
All the popular Delicious group of cultivars ripen at the

same time and thus cause glut in the market. With a view to
combine high dessert quality with good keeping quality, work was
initiated in Kashmir in 1956. Two hybrids, Lal Ambri (Red
Delicious x Ambri) and agold (Ambri x Golden Delicious) were
released. Work on similar lines was started in HP in 1960 (Chand, Lal Ambri
1962). As a result three promising hybrids, namely, Ambred, Ambstarking, and Ambrich
were selected. Subsequently, hybrid Ambroyal was also selected Salient characters of
these hybrids are enumerated below.
a) Ambred (Red Delicious x Ambri 157) : Tree is tall, maturity in second week of
September; fruits medium in size, conical, symmetrical, bright red stripes over barium
yellow ground; dots obscure; skin medium in thickness, smooth and glossy; flesh whitish,
crisp, firm aromatic and juicy, keeping quality is good up to three months in air cooled
storage. It has low incidence of powdery mildew, sooty blotch and apple scab.
b) Ambstarking (Starking Delicious x Ambri 81): Tree is vigorous, tall and open,
maturity in second week of September; fruits medium in size, round, conical symmetrical
and uniform in shape, currant red streaks over chrome yellow ground; dots numerous and
conspicuous; skin rough, smooth, flesh whitish firm, crisp, tough and juicy; keeping
quality comparable with Starking Delicious. It is tolerant to apple scab.
c) Ambroyal (Starking Delicious x Ambri 84): Tree is semi-dwarf and spreading. Fruit
maturity is in third week of September; fruits medium in size, conical in shape; skin thin.
smooth, red streaks on yellow ground; flesh white, soft, sweet, juicy with good dessert
quality. Storage quality is comparable with Starking Delicious.
d) Ambrich (Richard x Ambri 15): Tree is semi-dwarf, semi-spur type; spreading

drooping fruit maturity in second week of September, fruit medium size, round , conical
5

in shape, symmetrical sides equal and uniform, skin thick, smooth with chrysanthemum
crimsonwash; flesh whitish, firm crisp, sub acid aromatic and juicy with good dessert
quality. Tree is moderately susceptible to powdery mildew and tolerant to apple scab.
Early and dessert quality: Work was started at Chaubattia in 1970 and two promising
hybrids Chaubattia Princess and Chaubattia Anupam were evolved. Both these are from
crosses of Red Delicious x Early Shanburry.
Chaubattia Princess ripens during last week of June to the 1st week of July. The
tree is of medium vigour with upright growth habit. Fruits are medium in size, regular
and conical in shape. Fruit skin is thin and smooth with deep red streaks on pale
background. Flesh is creamy white, crisp in texture, firm juicy and very sweet. TSS is 14
per cent and acidity 0.22 per cent. The fruit pressure at maturity is 14 to 15 1b/sq. inch.
Keeping quality is quite good.
Scab resistance: During 1983, crosses Gala x 58553, Liberty x Delicious, Gala x 6356-
22 Gala x 6143-1, Freedom x delicious, Gala x Prima and Freedom (open pollinated)
were made at Mashobra and the hybrid seedlings are being evaluated.
Out breeding and Backcrossing
Dominant single gene resistance in a Malus species can be transferred to the

cultivated apple by a modified backcross procedure to avoid inbreeding. The method
involves crossing the wild species with a large fruited cultivar. The resistance F1s is
heterozygous and the best ones are selected and backcrossed to a good cultivar and their
progeny yields 50 per cent resistant seedlings. The best of these are again backcrossed to
a good cultivar until all the good qualities of the cultivated apple are recovered and the
resistance from the wild species retained. This avoids inbreeding by alternating different
cultivars for the recurrent quality parent and eliminates loss of vigour and incompatibility
problems.

Mutation Breeding
Work on induction and selection of desirable bud mutants was taken up at

Horticulture Experiment and Training Centre, Chaubattia in 1973. As a result, four
mutants with distinctly compact habit and better keeping quality of fruits were selected
and are being evaluated under different agroclimatic conditions.
PEACH
Breeding objectives
The main objective of peach (Prunus persica) improvement for low chilling areas
would be to develop cultivars with low chilling requirement, tolerance to high summer
temperature, maturity between 60 and 70 days after full bloom, firm flesh, freedom from
loose fibre, attractive colour, non- browning of flesh, resistance to root-knot nematode,
iron chlorosis and water logging. For processing peaches, firmness of flesh, freedom
from loose fibre, attractive colour and non-browning of flesh are the important characters
to be improved.
Introduction and selection

A large number of low chilling peach varieties, e.g.
Floridasun, Sun Red and Sun Gold and some other selections,
Floridared and Floradabelle were introduced at the PAU, Ludhiana,
during late sixties from Florida and California states in USA. Of
these introductions, Floridasun, Floridared, Sun Red and 16-33
(named-I-Shan– Punjab) became very popular. Of the later
introductions from USA, TA 170, known as ‘Partap’, has been
identified as early (7 days earlier than Flordasun). Its flesh is Sun Red
yellow, firm, with red coloration and better keeping quality. Another two introductions
from Florida, Flordaprice and Earligrande, have been recommended for commercial
cultivation for the plains of Punjab and adjoining areas. Flordaprice is early ripening,
whereas Earligrande is an mid-season variety.

Clonal selection
‘Sharbati’ is a chance seedling selected at Saharanpur
Hybridization
Redhar is a cross between “Halehaven and Kalhaven bred at USA. Inter-specific
hybridization has also been attempted in peaches especially in the development of
rootstock resistant to nematodes. Nemagcrad, a hybrid between P.persica x P. davididasa
is a widely used root-knot nematode resistant rootstock, which is immune to Meloidogyne
incognita.
Planned hybridization work on peach was started in 1957 at Saharanpur. Peach

Saharanpur Prabhat (Sharbati x Flordasun) was released. Fruits of this variety are
attractive, sweet, maturing at least 4 days earlier than Flordasun.
PLUM
Breeding objectives
In European plum (Prunus domestica), improvement for cold hardiness,
productivity, large sized fruits, colour (red, purple or blue), free stone and dessert quality
are important criteria. For Japanese plums (P. salicina), self fertile, late blooming plums,
with high quality (particularly yellow skin) are important characteristics.
Prunus domestica Prunus salicina

The main objectives of plum improvement programme for subtropical regions are
to develop an early maturing cultivar with low chilling requirement, tolerant to high
temperature and dwarfing rootstocks, tolerant to saline and stagnant soils, large fruited,
free stone, juicy with proper TSS/ acid ratio, suitable for processing and resistant /
tolerant to insect, pests and diseases.
Breeding methods
Introduction
A large number of plum varieties have been introduced from different countries.
Of these, Santa Rosa and Sutlej Purple are important commercial cultivars found suitable
for midhills of North Western Himalayas. Other methods of breeding are not yet followed
in this crop in India.
PEAR
Pear, Pyrus communis, has a chromosome number of 2n=34. Breeding objectives

are to develop dwarf scion and dwarf rootstocks tolerant to wet and saline soils and
resistant to diseases like Ganoderma and root rot, free from low bud differentiation,
alternate and shy-bearing of Baghugasha and Le Conte and selection of superior clones of
Patharnakh and Baggugosha.
Breeding methods
Introduction
Important and popular cultivars such as

Bartlett, Anjou, Kieffer are only introductions
from Europe and are well acclimatized to the
Northern and Southern Indian hills. A lot of
variability, however, exists in soft pear
plantations for yield, regular bearing, fruit size,
shape, skin colour and fruit quality. An extensive
survey of pear growing areas in Punjab and Kieffer
adjoining states taken up by the PAU, Ludhiana resulted in the identification of 19
9

superior strains of softpears. Of these, soft-fleshed selections ‘Red Blush” ‘Punjab Gold’
and “Punjab Nectar” are promising. Red Blush recorded the highest yield (23.7
tonnes/ha) with good quality attributes.
Questions
1. Cultivated apple is botanically known as Malus domestica.

Ans:True
2. The majority of cultivated apples are diploids (2n=34).
Ans:True
3. Golden Spur Delicious variety is an example for Spur type cultivar.
Ans: True
4. The main objectives of plum improvement programme for subtropical regions are to
develop an early maturing cultivar.
Ans:True
5. Peach variety resistant to nematodes is Nemagerad.
Ans:True
10

Lecture.23
History and importance of plantation crops
Plantation crops constitute a large group of crops. The major plantation crops
include coconut, arecanut, oil palm, cashew, tea, coffee, cocoa, rubber, palmyra etc. Their
total coverage is comparatively less and they are mostly confined to small holdings.
However, they play an important role in view of their export potential as well as domestic
requirements and in employment generation and poverty alleviation programmes
particularly in rural sector. In India, these crops are grown over an area of 3.2 million ha
(1.82% of the total cropped area), generating an annual income of over Rs. 1, 00,000
millions and contributing about Rs. 30,000 million to export earnings. Though
historically tea, coffee and rubber were raised as industrial crops in larger estates,
currently sizeable area under these crops are in smaller holdings in diverse farming
systems. There has been considerable research attempts to improve their productivity
through genetic means, to formulate package of cultural practices to boost up the yield
/ha, to manage major pests and diseases and above all to develop post-harvest
technologies and value –added products. Plantation crops are important in many aspects.
Coconut “Kalpavriksha” is used as food, edible oil and industrial lubricant. Tender
coconut water is a healthy drink. Owing to immense utility coconut is popularly known
as the tree of heaven. The timber, leaf petiole, shell husk, etc, are useful for various
purposes. Arecanut yields a masticator used with betel leaf and also as panmasala, pan
parag and scented supari. Oil palm yields palm oil rich in vitamin A and E. Cashew bears
apple and nuts having commercial importance. Cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL) is
industrial oil. Cocoa is grown for beans yielding cocoa butter and chocolate cake. Rubber
is an industrial crop. Tea and coffee are beverage crops. Palmyra yields padaneer having
versatile uses.
Tea: India is the largest producer and consumer of tea in the world and accounts for
around 28 per cent of world production and 15 per cent of world trade. There is no
restriction on export of tea and under the present Exim Policy; import of tea is permitted
with an import duty of 70 per cent.

Coffee: Coffee is mainly grown in two states – Karnataka and Kerala which accounts for
82 per cent of country’s production. Robusta and Arabica are the two varieties accounting
for 52 per cent and 48 per cent of the area respectively. During recent years area under
robusta coffee is increasing. The major buyers of Indian coffee are the Russian
Federation and Western Europe.
Rubber: Rubber is cultivated mainly in Kerala and Kanyakumari districts of Tamil

Nadu. About 97 per cent of the country’s demand for natural rubber is met from domestic
production. Export of natural rubber has been insignificant since international prices are
often lower than the domestic prices.
Coconut: Presently India is the highest producer of coconut in the world. It produces
about 14925 million nuts from an area of 1.9 million hectares. The productivity is 7822
nuts /ha which is more than double when compared to that of Indonesia and Philippines.
Arecanut: Arecanut plays an important role in the social, cultural and economic
activities of the people; India is the largest producer of arecanut in the world. The country
earns about Rs.45 million annually by exporting arecanut in different forms. The current
production is about 5.59lakh tonnes from an area of 397 thousand hectares. Karnataka,
Kerala, Assam and Tamil Nadu are the important states producing arecanut.
Cocoa: Cocoa is a crop of humid tropics of South America. The native Mayas and Aztecs
prepared a beverage called ‘xoxoatl’, by roasting and grinding cocoa beans. The word
chocolate originated from it. They used cocoa beans even as currency. Later domesticated
to many countries and now it is being grown for cocoa products (beverages, chocolate
bars, confectionery, powder and liquor). The major producer is Ivory Coast. Africa
produces 55% of world production, Asia 23% and America 22%. The first cocoa brought
to India is said to be in 1798, when 8 plants were shipped from Amazon and planted at
Courtallam in Tirunelveli district of Madras state. Later in 1873 few plants were planted
in Burliar fruit station. In South India, states of Kerala, Madras and Mysore (Wood,
1964) were found as suitable. The commercial cultivation of cocoa started in India only
in 1960’s with Kerala taking the lead. At present, Andhra stands first in area (16,969ha)
2

and Karnataka in production (7250 MT). The demand in Indian chocolate industry is
30,000 MT as against its production (12,954MT). Thus, there is a wide scope for
increasing the area under cocoa.
Cashew: Cashew a native of Eastern Brazil introduced to India just as other commercial
crops like Rubber, Coffee and oil palm. It was introduced during 16th Century by the
Portuguese and the first introduction of cashew in India was mainly considered as a crop
for afforestration and soil binding to check erosion. India is also the largest producer and
consumer of cashew nuts. It is estimated that total production of cashew is around 0.57
million tonnes from an area of 0.24 million hectares.
Plantation crops – Area, Production and Productivity (2002-2003) in India
Particulars Tea Coffee Rubber Cashewnut Cocoa

Area (ha ) 510600 347000 566555 770000 46,318
Production 826200 275275 649436 500000 12,954
(MT)
Productivity 1618 793 1146 760 380
(kg/ha)
Average and potential yield of some plantation crops

Crop Unit !ational Research Super Percentage over
Average Station potential !ational average
yield yield Res. Station Potential
yield
Coconut Nuts/palm 36 175 471 386 1208
Arecanut Chali 1 5 9 455 900
(Kg/palm)
Cashew Kg/tree 4 16 125 344 3372
Commodity Boards
Coconut Development Board – Cochin,
Coffee Board – Bangalore,

Rubber Board – Kottayam,
Tea board – Calcutta
Directorates (Ministry of Agriculture)
Directorate of Arecanut &Spices Development (DASD)- Calicut
Directorate of Cashewnut and Cocoa Development (DCCD) - Cochin
References
1. T.K. Bose, V.A. Parthasarathy and P.K. Chattopadhyay. 2006 Plantation Crops
Vol.1 Pub: Partha Sankar Basu, NayaUdyog, 206, Bidhan Sarani, Kolkata 700
006, India.
2. T.K. Bose, V.A. Parthasarathy and P.K. chattopadhyay. 2006 Plantation Crops Vol.2
Pub: Partha Sankar Basu, NayaUdyog, 206, Bidhan Sarani, Kolkata 700 006,
India
3. Journal of Plantation Crops
Answer the following Questions
1. Define Plantation crops
2. List out the crops classified under plantation
3. List out the role of plantation crop in Indian economy
4. List the importance of plantation crops
5. Mention the origin of cocoa and cashew
6. List the commodity boards for the plantation crops
7. Why coconut is named as Kalpavriksha?
8. What is the productivity of coconut in India
9. Mention two important beverage crop
10. Mention the importance of rubber cultivation

Lecture.24
Origin, distribution, domestication and adoption of plantation crops
Arecanut
The nativity has been variously attributed to former Cochin- China, Malay
Peninsula and neighboring islands and East Indies. It is also grown in East Africa,
Madagascar, Zanzibar, Sri lanka, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Indonesia, China, the
Philippines and Fiji Islands. However, scientific cultivation of arecanut is only in India.
Nearly 90% of the area and production come from Karnataka, Kerala and Assam.
Karnataka is the major arecanut- producing State, accounting for 38% of the Indian
production. It is also grown to a small extent in Tamil Nadu, Meghalaya, West Bengal,
Maharashtra and Orissa.
Cashew
It is a native of Brazil which was spread by the Portuguese to different parts of the
world primarily for soil conservation, afforestation and waste land development. Cashew
was introduced to India by Portuguese in the Malabar Coast in the 16th century and
subsequently dispersed to other parts of the country and also to South- East Asia. Around
the same time it was introduced to East African countries. Kerala, Maharashtra, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Goa and West Bengal which are presently the
main cashew producing States, although it is grown in non traditional areas like Madhya
Pradesh, Manipur, Tripura, Meghalaya and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Cocoa
The primary centre of diversity of cocoa is Upper Amazon basin in South
America. The tropical part of Central America qualifies as the secondary centre of cocoa.
After Mexico was conquered by Spanish, cocoa was introduced to Caribbean and
Venezuela, then to Philippines, Indonesia, India and Madagascar. Though cocoa gone to
Africa only in 1822, Ghana, Nigeria and Ivory Coast became the major producers.
Central American cocoa is Criollo, which is the ‘fine’ or ‘flavour’ cocoa. The common
Forastero ‘bulk’ cocoa, populations Amelonado, Comum, West African Amelonado,
Nacional, Matina or Ceylan and Guiana and Trinitarios adopted to cultivation in different
countries. In India, cocoa is mainly grown in in Kerala, Karnatak, Andhra Pradesh and
1

Tamil Nadu as an intercrop in coconut,arecanut,oilpalm gardens and partially cleared

forests as under storey crop.
Coconut
The origin of coconut is South East Asia or the Pacific Islands. It is grown in
more than 80 countries distributed in the tropical belt between 23°N and 23°S of equator.
The major coconut growing countries are India, Indonesia, Philippines, Sri Lanka,
Malaysia, Thailand, Papua New Guinea, Fiji, Samoa, Zanzibar and Soloman Islands.
Coffee
The majority of Coffea species are native to Africa. The Coffea arabica is a
native of Ethiopia, while Coffea canephora is a native to Central Africa. Coffee was
introduced to India in 1600 AD by a Muslim pilgrim, Baba Budan. In late 1820s,
commercial plantations were established in Coorg, Nilgiris, Palani hills and Wynad. By
1869, Indian coffee established itself producing quality coffee in world trade.
Oil palm
Oil palm originated in Guinea Coast of West Africa. In 15th century oil palms
were introduced to Brazil and other tropical countries by the Portuguese. Commercial
planting of oil palm started in Malaysia during 1917. Malaysia and Indonesia are the
leading producers, followed by Nigeria, Thailand, Ivory Coast, Colombia, Papua New
Guinea and a few South African, Central and South American countries.
Palmyrah
It is a native of tropical Africa. It grows extensively in drier parts of India, Sri
Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia and Indonesia. The palm belt in the
world roughly extends from 44°South latitude to 45°North latitude. Tamil Nadu and
Andhra Pradesh are the major states growing palmyrah.
Rubber
It is a native of Amazon River basin of South America. It was introduced to
tropical Asia in 1876 through Kew Garden in the UK with the seeds brought from Brazil.
It is now distributed in the tropical regions of Asia, Africa and America. The major
rubber- growing countries are Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, China and India. Indonesia
has maximum area under rubber but Thailand has taken the credit of maximum rubber

producer. In India, Kerala is the predominant rubber- growing State. Tamil Nadu and
Kerala account for 98% of the total production. The cultivation has extended to non
traditional areas like Tripura, Karnataka, Assam, Meghalaya, Maharashtra, Goa and
Orissa.
Tea
The origin of tea is South- East Asia. The use of tea as beverage could be traced back to
the later part of the 8th century AD, when commercialization of tea occurred through the Arabian
travelers. It is now spread over in India, China, Africa, Srilanka, Indonesia, Japan, Russia,
Malaysia, Mauritius, Australia and Argentina. Tea is grown in 50 countries, predominantly in
Asia, Africa and Europe. Of the major tea producers, India, China, Srilanka, Kenya, Russia and
Indonesia contribute the maximum share to global production.
References
1. Kumar,N., J.B. Mohammed Abdul Kader, P. Rengasamy and I. Irulappan, 1999.
Introduction to Spices, Plantation Crops, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. Oxford
IBU Publishers, Chennai.
006, India.
006, India
Answer the following Questions

1. ------- is the origin of tea
2. In India -------- is the predominant state growing rubber
3. ---------- is the native of palmyrah palm
4. The leading producers of oil palm are --------- and ----------
5. Two species of coffee are ------------ and -----------
6. List out the major coconut growing countries
7. Mention the two major types of cocoa

8. The native of cashew is ---------

9. Mention the areca nut growing countries

Lecture.25
Breeding strategies, clonal selection, poly-clonal orchards, bud mutation,
mutagenesis and its application in crop improvement of plantation crops
Breeding strategies
The important objectives are higher yields, resistance to pests and diseases, higher
quality, tolerance to abiotic stresses and evolving low input responsive varieties. Most of
the plantation crops, with twin advantage of vegetative propagation and viable sexual
reproduction offer much scope for crop improvement work, especially for selection,
breeding and exploitation of hybrid vigour.
Clonal selection
A clone is a group of plants produced from a single plant through asexual
reproduction. All the members of a clone have the same genotype as the parent plant as a
result, they are identical with each other in genotype. Clones are maintained by asexual
reproduction.
Merits of clonal selection
i. It is the only method of selection applicable to clonal crops. It avoids
inbreeding depression, and preserves the gene combinations present in the
clones.
ii. Clonal selection, without any substantial modification, can be combined with
hybridization to generate the variability necessary for selection.
iii. The selection scheme is useful in maintaining the purity of clones.
Demerits of clonal selection
i. This selection method utilizes the natural variability already present in the
population.
ii. Sexual reproduction is a prerequisite for the creation of variability through
hybridization.
Poly clonal orchards
More than one clone is planted and they are allowed to mate randomly. This is
mainly done to collect the seeds. The purpose of this is to produce a quantity of seed of
known parentage and proven performance. Therefore, the parents used in seed gardens
1

are selected on the result of progeny trials. Having selected the parents, they are
propagated vegetatively by rooted cuttings or by budding or grafting onto a seedling
rootstock. The female parents should be self-incompatible, i.e. trees which will not set
fruit with their own pollen, as all seed produced on these trees should arisen from pollen
from another tree. The desired crosses can be ensured by hand-pollination or by proper
design of the seed garden where natural pollination is relied on. With two self
incompatible parents, all the pods will result from cross-pollination and can be used for
seed, there being no apparent difference between a cross and it’s reciprocal. In such
cases, equal numbers of each parent were planted, often in double rows of each clone.
Where one parent is self-compatible, seed is gathered only from the self –incompatible
parent and in such cases the pollen parent was planted in the ratio of one to five female
parent trees. Another form is planting a series of self incompatible parents in such an
order that a number of different crosses are produced and seed can be collected from all
the trees. Garden with two self incompatible parents called biclonal orchard and with
multiple self incompatible clones, poly clonal orchards. It is of course, practical to plant a
small number of plants of several clones and obtain seed of known crosses by hand-
pollination. (e.g. Cocoa and rubber)
Bud mutation
Mutation is a sudden heritable change in a character of an organism. Mutations
produced by changes in the base sequence of genes are known as gene or point mutation.
Some mutations may be produced by changes in chromosome structure, or even in
chromosome number they are termed as chromosomal mutations. Mutation occurring in
buds of somatic tissues which are used for propagation is called as bud mutation. e.g.
clonal crops.
Mutagenesis
Treating a biological material with a mutagen in order to induce mutations is
known as mutagenesis.
Agents which induce mutations are known as mutagens. Mutagens may be
different kinds of radiation (physical mutagens) or certain chemicals (chemical
mutagens).

A. Physical mutagens
1. Ionising radiation
a) Particulate radiation e.g., α- rays, β-rays, fast neutrons and thermal neutrons
b) Nonparticulate radiation (Electromagnetic radiation) – X- rays and γ- rays
2. $onionising radiation : ultraviolet radiation
B. Chemical mutagens
1. Alkylating agents : EMS- ethylmethane sulphonate, MMS-
methyl methane sulphonate
2. Acridine dyes : acridine orange, acridine yellow, ethidium bromide
3. Base analogues : 5- bromouracil, 5-chlorouracil
4. Others: nitrous acid, hydroxyl amine, sodium azide.
References
1. B.D. Singh, 2005 Plant breeding – Principles and methods – Kalyani Publishers,
New Delhi
2. Chadha KL & Rethinam P. (Eds.).1993. Advances in Horticulture. Vol. IX.
Plantation Crops and Spices. Part-I. Malhotra Publ. House.
Answer the following questions

1. What are the breeding strategies of plantation crops?
2. What is a clone?
3. List out the merits of clonal selection
4. List out the demerits of clonal selection
5. What is a poly clone?
6. Name the crops in which polyclones are produced
7. Define mutation
8. What is mutagenesis?
9. Name two physical mutagen
10. Name two chemical mutagen

Lecture.26
Hybridization, haploid and ploidy breeding and In vitro techniques
in the improvement of plantation crops
Hybridization
The mating or crossing of two plants or lines of dissimilar genotypes is known as
hybridization. In plants, crossing is done by placing pollen grains from one genotype,
called the male parent onto the stigma of flowers of the other genotype, referred to as the
female parent. It is essential to prevent self pollination as well as chance cross-pollination
in the flowers of the female parent. At the same time, it must be ensured that the pollen
from the desired male parent reaches the stigma of flowers of the female parent for
successful fertilization. The seeds as well as the progeny resulting from the hybridization
are known as hybrid or F1.
In Plantation crops, in coconut, intervarietal hybrids with different parental
combinations such as Tall x Dwarf, Dwarf x Tall and Tall x Tall were produced in India
and Srilanka. The hybrids are popular because of early bearing and high productivity.
(Tall x Dwarf hybrids- Keraganga- WCT x Ganga Bondam, Kerasankara- WCT x
Chougat dwarf orange, VHC 1 – ECT x Malayan green dwarf, VHC 2- ECT x Malayan
Yellow dwarf). These hybrids are characterized by early bearing in 4-5 years, increased
yield of nuts with a mean of 100/palm, good quality copra having high content of 176 g
and oil recovery of 70%.
Dwarf x Tall hybrids :The distinct advantage of this hybrid over T x D is that it could be
produced on a large scale by regularly emasculating dwarf mother palms permitting free
natural crossing with pollen from tall palms standing nearby. Use of Dwarf orange or
yellow as female parent enables the identification of hybrid seedlings because of colour
marker (Chandra sankara – Choughat Orange dwarf x WCT).
Tall x Tall hybrids: It is produced by intravarietal hybridization of tall cultivars under

controlled conditions. Individual palms of high breeding value are identified and these
genotypes are grown on isolated seed garden and utilized for production of T x T hybrids.
1
Though late in bearing, the yield potential of T x T hybrids is good. These hybrids are
considered to be high yielding and tolerant to biotic and abiotic stress when compared to
D x T hybrids.
In cashew, to combine prolific bearing with other desirable traits with bold nut,
cluster bearing habit and compact canopy, hybridization with parents selected for these
characters were attempted. Hybrids performed better than the selections. Hybrid vigour
could be easily be commercially utilized in cashew through soft wood grafting.
Cocoa
The hybrids Trinitarios in cocoa result from natural crosses between Criollo and
Forastero types. They are hardier and more productive than Criollo.
Hybridization
Self- incompatibility in cocoa is utilized in production of hybrids with specific
objectives. Hybrid vigour is established in cocoa. Hybridization programme was started
at Vittal in 1980 using selected parents, for high pod yield, dry bean yields, bigger bean
size, more fat content and drought tolerance. A comparison of parents and hybrids in
progeny trials with 70 cross combinations indicated more vigour in progenies, with
positive and significant heterosis.
Progeny Trial I
The parents in the first progeny trial included Upper Amazon collections, Imperial
College Selections, Scavina series and Nanay series. Hybrid NA-33 x ICS -89 excelled in
pod and bean yield.
Progeny Trial II
It had a total of 17 hybrids and their parents. Hybrid I-56 x II – 67 gave the
maximum pod and bean yield, followed by I-14 x I-56 and I-56 x III-35.
2
Progeny Trial III

It involved Malaysian hybrids and bulk Forasteros. Hybrids ICS-6 x SCA-6, ICS-
6 x SCA-12, IMC-67 x ICS-6 and Amelonado x Na 33 are consistent yielders with
quality beans.
Progeny Trial IV
Nine hybrids with their seven parents were evaluated for yield and drought
tolerance. Hybrids II-67 x NC-29/66 and II-67 x NC-42/94 registered the highest pod
index with advantageous physiological and biochemical components.
These hybridization works resulted in development of varieties which are

vigorous, early, heavy bearing, stable yielders VTLCH -1, 2, 3 and 4 standard bean
characters. These are suitable for cultivation in Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Goa,
Maharashtra and North Eastern states.
Establishment of clonal orchards

For F1 seed production and for supply of quality planting materials, clonal
orchards were established. Based on the compatibility reactions self-incompatible but
cross-compatible high yielding parents were selected and planted in clonal orchards. Two
self-incompatible parents grown together in a bi-clonal orchard will produce F1 pods of
specific identity or known parentage through natural crossing. In poly-clonal orchard
more self-incompatible clones are assembled together and all the pods harvested are F1
hybrids. These clonal orchards (6 bi-clonal and 1 poly-clonal) with 1200 trees were
established at CPCRI, Research Centre, Kidu, Nettana, Karnataka.
Multiplication
Vegetative propagation through soft wood grafting method was also standardized
for multiplication of selected accessions and high yielding varieties for supply as well as
for early evaluation.
3
In coffee, a spontaneous hybrid of C. canephora x C. arabica was introduced.

Interspecific hybrids C. congensis x C. canephora, C. liberica x C. eugenoides. The
hybrid resembled Arabica in cup quality and possessed tolerance to drought and rust.
In oil palm, Tenera hybrids between Deli dura x AVROS pisifera with
tremendous yield potential were evolved. In India, 2 high yielding teneras selected from
cross combinations involving 11 duras of Malaysian origin and 5 pisiferas of Nigerian
origin were released for cultivation. Considerable yield improvement was reported for
hybrid.
Haploids
An individual with the gametic chromosome number is called as haploid.
Haploids are weaker than diploids and are of little agricultural value directly. But they are
of great interest because they offer certain unique opportunities in crop improvement.
They are used for developing homozygous diploid lines, following chromosome doubling
in two years. This greatly reduces the time and labour required for the isolation of inbreds
and pure lines.
Tissue culture
Cashew : Production of somatic embryogenesis and plantlet regeneration which could
subsequently be useful for genetic transformation to introduce genes for resistance to tea
mosquito and stem and root borers, micro grafting techniques, developing haploids and
isogenic lines and molecular characterization of existing genetic diversity.
Coconut: Embryo culture has become an important tool for safe germplasm movement.
The 3 components of an embryo culture protocol are field collection of embryos, in-vitro
conservation and retrieval, and ex-vitro establishment of seedling. Success achieved in
the routine use of embryo culture for field collection and short-term storage up to 2
months in sterile distilled water and nearly 80 % of the embryos could be retrieved. A
medium containing 2g/litre of activated charcoal without sucrose could store the embryos
for 6 months which gives 77% germination.
4
Cryopreservation of coconut germplasm: Use of in-vitro culture techniques including

slow growth and cryopreservation, represents an important additional option for safe
medium and long term conservation of coconut germplasm. Immature embryos from nuts
of 7-8 months after pollination could be successfully cryopreserved and retrieved. The
embryos are dessicated for 4 hours in air current of laminar flow cabinet, pretreated for
11 -20 hours on a medium containing 600g/lit sucrose and 15% glycerol and then rapidly
immersed in liquid nitrogen. Whole plants could be produced from 73.93 % of
cryopreserved embryos.
Coffee : The major constraints of coffee production where tissue culture techniques can
offer solutions are development of resistance through genetic engineering for fungal
diseases particularly leaf rust, introduction of Bt gene to control of berry and stem borers,
use of embryo rescue for interspecific crosses from resistant species and development of
tools for quality improvement for uniform maturity, short maturation cycles, high soluble
solids, large bean size and density, better aroma and less caffeine content. Synthetic seed
technology for encapsulating embryos in sodium alginate has been developed. Anther
culture technique has been successfully employed for callus induction and plantlet
regeneration in interspecific hybrid between C. congensis x C. canephora. Plants are
successfully regenerated from the embryo cultures of 3 interspecific crosses involving C.
canephora as one of the parents and 3 indigenous wild species viz., C. bengalensis, C.
travencorensis and C. wightiana.
Oil palm: The technique of cryopreservation in oil palm has been standardized and the
embryoids could be stored for 15 months in liquid nitrogen and then plantlets can be
regenerated from frozen embryoids.
Rubber: Isogenic lines evolved from anther culture could be used in heterosis breeding.
Gene transformation protocols, through Agrobacterium and by using gene gun have been
perfected and further success in this line will lead to improvement of rubber through
biotechnological tools.
5
Tea: The major areas where biotechnology would be useful in tea improvement are
micropropagation for mass multiplication of elite tea clones, application of molecular
markers for characterizing tea clones as well as quality, genetic engineering for
developing resistance to blister blight and identification , characterization and gene
transfer for low- caffeine tea. Tissue culture-derived clones are more vigorous than
conventionally propagated plants through vegetative methods and produced higher
number of laterals in response to centering and tipping.
Cocoa
Somatic embryogenesis
From floral parts genetically identical embryos are formed. These embryos grow
and forms seedling like architecture, which is advantageous, reduces pruning (Penn State
University, USA). Secondary embryogenesis, single embryos can form multiple
secondary embryos each identical to the first.
MS (Murashige and Skoog) + NAA 1.8 + Thiamine 1mgl-1+ CW (Coconut water) 15% +
Sucrose 4% (KAU media for somatic embryogenesis)
MS basal medium supplemented with 0.5 mg/l of NAA and 0.5 mg/l of BAP is found to
be best with leaf explants for optimal callus production (CPCRI)
Cryopreservation of cocoa shoot tip is carried out by three methods

viz.,Encapsulation- dehydration, pregrowth- desiccation and Droplet-freezing method.
For preculture, McCown’s Woody Plant Medium (WPM) supplemented with sucrose
0.75M and ascorbic acid 0.1g/litre, and for retrieval, WPM medium with 0.6M sucrose
and BAP(1mg/L), GA3 (0.5mg/L) and NAA(0.2mg/L) are used. In pre growth
desiccation method shoot tips were incubated in 1.5M sucrose solution for 24 hours that
showed slight enlargement of tissues in both cryopreserved (+LN) and non-cryopreserved
(-LN) shoot tips. There is no cell wall breakage or cell shrinkage. The cell viability was
tested by using 0.1%TTC (2, 3, 5 triphenyl tetrazolium chloride) solution. TTC test gave
positive result (red colour) only for cryopreserved shoot tips following pregrowth-
desiccation that resulted in 5% initial survival.
6
References
006, India.
006, India
Answer the following the questions

1. Define hybridization
2. What is a hybrid?
3. What is a spontaneous hybrid
4. What is a haploid?
5. Define cryopreservation
6. What is the use of haploid production?
7. Name one intervarietal hybrid in coconut
8. What is an interspecific hybrid
9. Quote an example for interspecific hybrid
10. Mention the advantage of the tissue cultured derived clones.
11. Differentiate between D x T and T x D
7
Lecture.27
Genetic resources, objectives of breeding, principles and method of breeding and
Salient breeding achievements in Coconut
Coconut: Cocos nucifera L. Family: Arecaceae

Cocos is a monotypic genus and there are no wild forms and hence variability
exists only within local types or populations. The genus name cocos and the popular
name coconut are derived from Spanish word Coco meaning “monkey face” – a probable
reference to the 3 scars on the shell resembling 2 eyes and a nose on monkey’s face.
Research and Development on coconut in India

CPCRI (Central Plantation Crops Research Institute)
Mandate crops of CPCRI are coconut, arecanut and cocoa. It also co-ordinates
research on the mandate crops within the country through AICRP on palms (started in
1970).
CPCRI has three Regional Stations

1) At Kayangulam – Kerala= Research on plant protection in coconut,
2) At Vittal – Karnataka for research on arecanut and cocoa and
3) At Minicoy – in Lakshadweep islands for research on coconut.
Seed farms
1. CPCRI maintains the International Gene Bank of coconut for South Asia at the
Seed Farm, Kidu.
1

2. Central Agricultural Research Institute is maintaining its World Coconut

Germplasm Centre at Sipighat in Andamans which was earlier established by
CPCRI.
Coconut Development Board
Started in 1981 under Ministry of Agriculture, GOI, with head quarters at Kochi
(Kerala) and regional offices at Bangalore, Chennai and Patna.
Objectives
• Adopting measures for the development of coconut industry
• Imparting technical advice to those engaged in coconut cultivation and industry.
• Providing financial and other assistance for the expansion of area under coconut.
• Encouraging adoption of modern technologies for processing of coconut and its
products
• Adopting measures to get incentive prices for coconut and its products.
• Recommending measures for improving marketing of coconut and its products.
• Recommending measures for regulating imports and exports of coconut and its
products.
• Fixing grades, specifications and standards for coconut and its products.
• Financing suitable schemes to increase the production of coconut and to improve
the quality and yield of coconut.
• Assisting, encouraging, promoting and financing agricultural, technological,
industrial or economic research on coconut and its products.
• Collecting statistics on coconut and its products and publishing them.
• Undertaking publicity activities and publishing books and periodicals on coconut
and its products.
Crop Improvement
Research on coconut improvement was given considerable attention as early as in

1916 in India. The major objectives of breeding in coconut are improving the yield by
improving the size of nut and per palm yield, improving copra and oil content of nuts,
2

production of short-statured varieties and resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. The
genetic improvement of coconut is difficult and time-consuming because of long pre-
bearing age, perennial habit, heterozygous nature, time lag involved in the study of
progeny, low multiplication rate, lack of clonal propagation and requirement of large area
for experimentation.
Cogent
The international Coconut Genetic Resources Net Work under IPGRI, Rome, has
approved the establishment of multi-site International Coconut Gene Bank (ICG) at Indo-
nesia, India, Brazil,Papua New Guinea and Cote d Ivoire. The site selected for ICG for
South Asia is CPCRI Seed Farm, Kidu , Karnataka.
Among exotic cultivars, Philippines Ordinary (PO), Philippines Laguna (P) and
San Ramon from Philippines, Fiji Tall and Fiji Longtonwon from Fiji Island and Strait
Settlement Green from Malaysia are superior. Among indigenous cultivars, Kappadam,
Andaman Ordinary and Laccadive Ordinary have higher-yield potential than local West
Coast Tall.
Breeding objectives / Breeding for specific traits in coconut

1) Yield improvement: Hybrids gave 20 –40 % more number of nuts and 40 – 103 %
copra /palm/year over local talls.
2) Breeding for tolerance to drought / Drought Tolerance

Breeding for drought tolerance has been initiated during the later half of 1980s.
Well-distributed rainfall or adequate irrigation ensures high productivity in coconut.
However, in the northern part of Kerala and the Maidan part of Karnataka, the crop is
grown under rainfed conditions with about 5-7 months of prolonged dry spell.
The palms are periodically exposed to low rainfall or delayed onset of monsoon
or both resulting in poor yield. The adverse effects of drought on coconut persist even for
the subsequent 2-3 years. Under these circumstances, evolving a drought tolerant variety

is of paramount importance. Rajagopal et al. (1990) standardized the techniques on

screening coconut varieties for drought tolerance using epicuticular wax, stomatal
frequency and leaf water potential.
They identified WCT × WCT, Federated Malay States (FMS), Java Giant, Fiji,
Andaman Giant and LO × COD as drought tolerant. Recently, some more tolerant
varieties have been identified and they are all currently being utilized in breeding
programmes to identify high yielding hybrids with drought tolerance.
3) Breeding for resistance/ tolerance to root (wilt) diseases

Since coconut belongs to the monotypic genus, the possibility of tapping the gene
pools from related species is limited.
The root (wilt) disease is one of the major production constraints in Kerala and in
view of its phytoplasma etiology, the two strategies followed are:
a) Uprooting the diseased palms and replanting; and
b) Breeding for disease resistance. In the former programme, there is an inbuilt risk of
losing the valuable indigenous gene pool. Hence, there is a need to identify disease-free
desirable genotype and maintain them in conservation blocks.
The crop loss caused by root (wilt) disease has been indicated earlier and in view
of their phytoplasma etiology, effective chemical control measures are not available.
Hence, the development of resistant/tolerant varieties to the root (wilt) disease is the only
lasting solution.
Screening of the available coconut germplasm starting from 1972 onwards failed
to identify any disease tolerant accession. However, in areas where the disease was
endemic, high yielding disease-free WCT palms were found. These palms were subjected
to physiological and serological studies followed by electron microscopy to ensure that
they were free from MLOs. Similarly, disease-free CGD plants were also identified in hot

spot areas. These disease-free palms were utilized for producing WCT × CGD and CGD
× WCT hybrids and WCT inter se and self-pollinated material. The screenings of these
progenies are in progress from 1989 onwards. CPCRI has released two resistant varieties
Kalpasree (CGD selection) and Kalparaksha(MGD selection) and one tolerant hybrid
viz., Kalpasankara (CGD x WCT). These three varieties are high yielding and have been
released for cultivation in root wilt prevalent areas.
4) Pest Resistant cultivars: Preliminary screening of cultivars and hybrids against leaf
eating caterpillar and rhinoceros beetle has been carried out. Though there is variation
among coconut cultivars for the susceptibility, no resistant cultivar was observed.
5) Quality improvement: The oil content has a very narrow range in many accessions
varying from 65 to 70 percent.
Higher oil content: However, cultivars like Laccadive Ordinary have oil content of up
to 72%. Efforts have to be directed to improving the oil content of high yielding
varieties.
Quality of oil
There is also a need to breed varieties for low saturated: unsaturated oil ratio in
view of the dietary consciousness of the vegetable oil users.
Tendernut water quality: Consumption of tendernut as a natural, refreshing drink is
becoming increasingly popular in our country. Among the cultivars evaluated the cv
COD had the maximum total sugars (7.0%) and reducing sugars (4.70 %) coupled with
low sodium and potassium levels. CPCRI has released this variety for tendernut purpose.
Coconut cv Phillippines Ordinary, MYD, WCT and Hybrid MYD x WCT are also
having appreciable amount of nut water and sugar during seventh month after fruit set
and these cultivars are suggested for cultivation for tendernut. The volume of nut water

was the highest in 7 month old tendernuts .The Tall genotype Zanzibar and West Coast
Tall and Dwarf genotypes COD and MOD were superior in terms of tendernut water.
Methods of Breeding
Introduction: The earliest exotic introductions were made in 1924 from Philippines,
Malaysia, Fiji, Indonesia, Sri Lanka and Vietnam which formed the nucleus population
for many research programmes. The germplasm exchange programme was further
intensified in 1952 and in 1958; survey for collection of indigenous germplasm was
started. Central Plantation Crops Research Institute (CPCRI), Kasaragod has been
designated as the "National Active Germplasm Site" for coconut and maintains the
world's largest assemblage of coconut germplasm with 132 accessions which include 86
exotic and 46 indigenous cultivars. The World Coconut Germplasm Centre is located at
Sipighat in Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Germplasm collections are also maintained at
Regional Research Station, Kerala Agricultural University, Pilicode and at 11
Coordinating centres, in different States under the AICRP on Palms, These collections
are being evaluated for the economic characters such as number of nuts/palm/year,
number of bunches, average number of female flowers production, setting percentage,
weight of copra/nut, oil content (%) in copra and resistance to pests and diseases in
comparison with local cultivars.
Selection: Selection aims at retention of desired genotypes and elimination of

undesirable ones in the population. This is an important method practised for
improvement of coconut. Selection is based on certain visible characteristics of palms
that are associated with yield potential such as:
1) Growth: Stout, straight trunks are associated with short, strong bunch stalks and full
crown having umbrella/ Spherical shape. Closely spaced leaf scars are a clear
indication of a large number of short, strong and well-oriented leaves. A high-
yielding palm has more than 30 fully opened fronds.

2) 5ature and Disposition of Crown: Short fronds provide adequate support to

developing nuts, whereas long fronds fail to support the bunches whereby bunch stalk
buckles and causes premature nut fall. The fronds are better oriented in palms with
spherical or semi-spherical crown than in those with drooping or erect crown.
3) 5ature of Bunch Stalks: Short and stout bunch stalks are better supporters of nuts in
bunch and do not require artificial propping. Palms with short fronds and petioles
have short bunch stalks also.
4) 5umber of Inflorescences in the Crown: The number of inflorescences produced
largely depends on the number of leaves produced. Regular and heavy bearers usually
possess 4-5 leaves more than the medium and poor yielders, with corresponding
number of spadices which range from 12 to 15.
5) Age of Palm: In general, palms of 25-60 years old (Middle aged) are recommended
because this corresponds to steady period of yield.
6) High and Consistent Yield of 5uts: The number of nuts/ palm is highly variable
mainly due to the number of female flowers and percentage of set. Most of the palms
are regular-bearers even though a few palms show pronounced alternate bearing
habit. Selection should be based on large number of spikelets with only one or two
female flowers /spikelet and high-setting percentage. In India, 80 nuts/palm/year is
taken as standard.
High Copra Output: Copra yield is influenced by the number of nuts produced
per year and the weight of copra/nut. High degree of correlation exist between weight of
husked nuts and that of copra and high heritability values are observed. Palms producing
medium-sized nuts with round or oblong shape weighing not less than 600 g of husked
nut and mean copra content of 150 g/nut or more are selected,
High-yielders of Outstanding Breeding Value: All high-yielding mother palms
need not necessarily produce high-, yielding progenies. Mother palms which produce best
progenies have high breeding values. The superiority of progeny can be judged from
certain characters at the nursery stage itself. Progeny of high-setting mother palms shows
early germination, high collar girth, faster rate of leaf production and early flowering.

It is desirable to restrict selection to the best 10% of the palms in each field.
Exploitation of Hybrid Vigour: Discovery of hybrid, vigour by Patel (1937) in crosses
between West Coast Tall (WCT) and Chowghat Green Dwarf (CGD) is a significant
landmark in the history of coconut improvement. This important finding paved the way
for successful breeding programmes for high yield in many coconut-growing countries.
Intervarietal hybrids with different parental combinations such as Tall x Dwarf,

Dwarf x Tall and Tall x Tall were produced in India and Sri Lanka. These hybrids are
gaining popularity because of early-bearing and high productivity.
Hybridization: Hybridization technique involves emasculation of male flowers

before female flowers become receptive, collection of mature flowers from pollen parent,
extracting pollen, mixing pollen with diluents in a 1:9 ratio and dusting this mixture using
a pollen dispenser. The F1 hybrid production requires controlled pollination using bags
for pollination.
Two methods for commercial production of hybrids are adopted. They are
assisted pollination and mass-controlled pollination. Assisted pollination is done in inter-
planted seed garden in which lines of seed parents, usually dwarfs, are alternated with a
smaller number of pollen parent rows of talls. This method is limited to one hybrid
combination. In mass-controlled pollination pollen is supplied to a seed garden that is
totally isolated. Different hybrid combinations can then be produced. In both cases, seed
gardens are surrounded by 200-300 m wide/barriers of non-coconut vegetation.
Individual palms are inspected daily, inflorescence ready-to-open are emasculated and
respective flowers are pollinated.
Tall x Dwarf Hybrids: Tall varieties are taken as female parent and dwarf
varieties as male parent. Among dwarfs, Chowghat Dwarf Orange and Ganga Bondam
are best for production of hybrids with West Coast Tall. These hybrids are characterized
by early-bearing in 4-5 years, increased yield of nuts with a mean of 100/palm, good
quality copra having high content of 176 g and oil recovery of 70%. The hybrid palms are

easily susceptible to soil moisture fluctuations resulting in shedding of buttons and

drooping of leaves during summer. When Laccadive Ordinary was used as female parent,
the hybrids showed drought tolerance and better yield. The T x D production is time-
consuming and laborious when compared to D x T hybrids, since it requires trained
climbers for emasculation and hand-pollination of tall-palms.
Dwarf x Tall Hybrids: Dwarf varieties are taken as female parent and tall
varieties as male parent. The distinct advantage of this hybrid over T x D is that it could
be produced on a large scale by regularly emasculating dwarf mother palms, permitting
free natural crossing with pollen from tall palms standing nearby. Use of Dwarf Orange
or Yellow as female parent enables the identification of hybrid seedlings because of
colour marker. Yellow, orange or red petiole colour is recessive to brown and green
pigments and hybrids show a greenish-brown or brownish petiole depending on the
colour of talls used in crossing. Occurrence of natural cross hybrids (NCD) of dwarfs in
the open-pollinated progeny of dwarf is a well-known phenomenon. NCDs are present to
the extent of 20%. Hybrid seedlings are selected based on increased vigour and petiole
colour.
D x T hybrids are more vigorous than either of the parents and are prolific
yielders. They come to bearing in 4-5 years and out yielded the tall. Field evaluation of
coconut hybrids indicated that among T x D and D x T hybrids, D x T was definitely
superior to T x D. It was also noticed that tree-to-tree variation was minimum in the
hybrid. The nut and copra characters are superior to dwarfs and more or less similar to
talls. The hybrids occasionally show a tendency for alternate-bearing, bunch, buckling,
and susceptibility to moisture fluctuations, resulting in button shedding and drooping of
leaves.
Use of Malayan Yellow Dwarf as female parent gives 95-97% recovery of
hybrids, since it is more homozygous due to self-pollination. In combinations involving
Chowghat Dwarf Orange, hybrid recovery is only 30% since it is not completely
homozygous. For production of stable hybrids with high economic value, selection of

cultivars with wide genetic make-up, selection of hybrid combiners and use of inbred
talls as male are recommended.
Tall x Tall Hybrid: The T x T hybrids are produced by intravarietal
hybridization of tall cultivars under controlled conditions. Individual palms of high-
breeding value are identified and utilized for production of T x T hybrids. Though late in
bearing, the yield potential of T x T hybrids are good.
Breeding for Special Characteristics

Drought Tolerance: A low average rainfall (< 150 mm/ month) and erratic
distribution adversely affect the yield of palm. The traits identified for predicting drought
tolerance in coconut are accumulation of epicuticular wax on leaf surface, low stomatal
frequency, low stomatal resistance and leaf water potential. Based on these characters,
the drought tolerant cultivars identified are Federated Malay States, Java Giant, Fiji,
Laccadive Ordinary and Andaman Giant. Laccadive Ordinary was more tolerant to
drought and hybrids LO x COD and LO x Ganga Bondam also, show tolerance to
drought.
Disease Resistance: Screening of the germplasm collections and hybrid
combinations against root wilt, the most devastating disease in coconut, was not
successful. 'Hot spot' areas of root wilt were surveyed and palms were identified.
Chowghat Green Dwarf (CGD) palms, which are disease-free, are being utilized
in breeding programmes. Breeding for resistance to coconut root wilt disease resulted in
the development and release of two resistant varieties viz. Kalparaksha (MGD selection)
and Kalpasree (CGD selection) and one tolerant hybrid viz. Kalpasankara (CGD x WCT)
for cultivation in the root wilt prevalent areas.
Germplasm Exchange: Prevalence of root wilt disease in Kerala, Tatipaka
disease in Andhra Pradesh, Tanjavur and Ganoderma wilts in Tamil Nadu restrict the
movement of germplasm especially with other countries. However, coconut germplasm
from India can be obtained with the approval or ICAR, New Delhi. The nodal agency for
coordinating germplasm exchange in India is NBPGR, New Delhi, while CPCRI,
Kasaragod, is the agency for phytosanitary clearance. At the international level, Inter-
10

national Coconut Genetic Resources Net Work (COGENT) under IPGRI is responsible
for the introduction and exchange of coconut germplasm with the financial support from
FAO and ADB. The COGENT restricts the movement of coconut germplasm through
seeds and permits zygotic embryos.
Breeding achievements in coconut
Coconut varieties released through selection
Sl. Cultivar Released under the State for which
5o. name recommended
1 Laccadive Ordinary Chandrakalpa A.P., TN, Karnataka,
Maharastra, and Kerala
2 Banawali Green Round Pratap Coastal Maharastra
3 Philippines Oridinary Kerachandra Coastal Maharastra,
Coastal AP and WB.
4 Andaman Ordinary VPM-3 All districts of Tamil
Nadu
VPM 3: It is a selection from material received from CPCRI, Kasaragod, Kerala. It

yields 72-92 nuts and 15 kg copra per palm per year with high oil content. The duration is
80-100 years and suited to all districts of Tamil Nadu.
ALR (C5) 1: It is single line selection from Arasampatti tall (Dharmapuri district)
released from Coconut Research Station, Aliyar nagar. This variety comes to bearing in
five years of planting and continues to bear and yield well up to 80 years. It is a drought
tolerant, early bearer (5 years), high yielding, tall variety. 7645 nuts give one-ton copra.
This variety tolerates the incidence of important pests of coconut. It is suitable under both
rainfed and irrigated conditions.
11

ALR (C5) 2
It is a selection from Tiptur tall with an average yield of 109 nuts/palm /year.
Comes to bearing in 5½ years with regular bearing habit. It produces 12 inflorescences
per year. The weight of copra is 135g/nut with an oil content of 64.7 per cent. It possesses
drought tolerance and is moderately resistant to rhinoceros beetle, red palm weevil and
leaf blight.
Hybrids: The manifestation of heterosis or hybrid vigour in coconut was first reported
from India in 1937. The intervarietal hybrids produced for commercial plantings are T x
D and D x T with different parental combinations. These hybrids are gaining popularity
because of their early bearing and high productivity. The plants are dwarf in stature and
start yielding from 3-4 years after planting.
Eg: Lakshaganga, Ananda Ganga, Chandra Laksha, Keraganga, Kerasree, VHC-1,
VHC-2, etc.
B) Evaluation and release of Hybrids in coconut.
Steps involved in commercial production of coconut hybrids are as given below;
o 1. Emasculation of male flowers before female flowers come to receptivity,
o 2. Collection of mature male flowers
o 3. Extracting pollen from male flowers
o 4. Mixing of pollen with diluents in the ratio of 1:9
o 5. Dusting of pollen + diluents mixture using a pollen dispensor
12

Field performance of hybrids derived from different cross combinations of talls

and dwarfs are due to the different combining ability of the parents. Hybrids gave 20 –
40 % more number of nuts and 40 – 103 % copra /palm/year over local talls.
Commercial production of hybrids has been undertaken in seed gardens established in
Kerala, Karnataka, TN and Orissa.
Hybrids
1) CHANDRASANKARA (COD x WCT): This hybrid is between COD x WCT and
was released by CPCRI Kasaragod in 1985. It is an early bearing and high yielding
hybrid with an average annual yield of 116 nuts per palm. The copra content is 215
g/nut.
2) CHANDRALAKSHA (LO x COD): This is a tall x dwarf hybrid with an annual
yield of 109 nuts per palm. This hybrid comes to bearing in about 6 years.
3) KERASANGARA (WCT x COD): This hybrid comes to bearing in 4-5 years and
attains steady bearing by the 6th or 7th year after planting. The mean annual yield is
108 nuts/palm with a copra content of 187g/nut.
4) LAKSHAGANGA (LO x GB): This hybrid was released by Kerala Agricultural

University. It comes to bearing in about 5 years. The mean yield is 108
nuts/palm/year and copra content is 195g/nut. The oil content is 70 percent.
5) ANANDAGANGA (AO x GB): This is a hybrid between Andaman Ordinary and

Gangabondam with an annual average yield of 95 nuts. The copra content is 216
g/nut and oil content is 68 percent.
6) KERAGANGA (WCT x GB): This is yet another hybrid released by KAU. The
average annual yield is 100 nuts/palm. The copra content is 201 g/nut and oil content
is 69 percent.
7) KERASREE (WCT x MYD): This is a recently released hybrid from KAU. The
annual mean yield is 112nuts/palm with a copra content of 216g/nut.
13

8) KERASOUBHAGYA (WCT x SSG): This is a cross between West Coast Tall and
Straight Settlement Green. Comes to bearing in about 5-6 years with an annual yield
of 116 nuts/palm. Copra content per nut is 196g and oil content is 65%.
9) VHC-1 (ECT x GB): It is a hybrid between East Coast Tall and Malayan Dwarf
Green. It’s pre bearing age is 4 years, with an yield of 98 nuts/palm/year. Copra
content per fruit is 135 g with an oil content of 70 per cent.
10) VHC-2 (ECT x MYD): It is a hybrid evolved by crossing, East Coast Tall and
Malaysian Yellow Dwarf at Veppankulam,Tamil Nadu. It yields more than 100 nuts
per tree per year, which is 55% higher than local varieties and 8% over VHC 1. It
yields as much copra yield as VHC 1 with 11% higher oil content. The buckling of
bunches is negligible with a high degree of stability.
11) VHC-3 (ECT x MOD): VHC 3 (East Coast Tall x Malaysian Orange Dwarf) records
a mean yield of 156 nut/palm/year and copra yield of 25.2 kg/palm/year with an
increased nut yield of 10 per cent and copra yielded 19.7 per cent over VHC 2. Oil
content is 70 per cent. The estimated oil yield is 2.55 tonnes / ha as against 2.13 and
1.13 tonnes/ha in VHC 2, ECT respectively. High nut weight, kernel weight and
copra weight are the special features of VHC 3. The hybrid recorded high copra out
turn of 162 g/nut as against 146 g in VHC 2. For one tonne of copra it requires 6180
nuts, whereas VHC 2 and ECT requires 7680 and 6675 nuts respectively.
14

Varieties/ Hybrids released from CPCRI, Kasargod, Kerala

5ame Area for which 5ut yield Copra (g/nut) Oil content
recommended (%)
Varieties
Chandrakalpa Kerala, Karnataka, 97 195 70.0
TN
Kerachandra AP, Maharashtra, 110 198 66.0
Chowghat All coconut growing Tender nut variety
Orange regions
Dwarf
Kalpa West Coast region 91 256 67.0
Pratibha and peninsular India
Kalpa Dhenu West Coast region 86 242 65.5
and Andaman and
Nicobar Islands
Kalpa Mitra West Coast region 80 241 66.5
and West Bengal
Kalparaksha West Coast region 65 215 65.5
and root (wilt) disease
tracts of Kerala
Kalpasree Root (wilt) prevalent 90 96.3 66.5
tracts of Kerala and
adjoining states.
Hybrids
Chandra Kerala, Karnataka, 110 208 68.0
Sankara Tamil Nadu
Kera Sankara Kerala, Karnataka, 106 198 68.0
Maharashtra, AP
Chandra Kerala, Karnataka 109 195 69.0
Laksha
Kalpa West coast of India 117 220 67.5
Samridhi
Kalpa Root (wilt) prevalent 84 170 67.5
Sankara tracts of Kerala and
15

adjoining states.
References
1. Thampan PK 1981. Hand Book of Coconut Palm. Oxford & IBH.
2. Kumar,N., J.B. Mohammed Abdul Kader, P. Rengasamy and I. Irulappan,
1999. Introduction to Spices, Plantation Crops, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants.
Oxford IBU Publishers, Chennai.
Answer the following
1. What is the botanical name and family of coconut?
2. Expand CPCRI
3. What is COGENT
4. Mention two important breeding objectives of coconut
5. Name two D x T hybrids
6. Name two T x D hybrids
7. Mention two varieties for tender coconut
8. List out the steps involved in hybrid production in coconut
9. Mention two objectives of breeding for special feature
10. List out the methods of breeding in coconut
11. List two resistant varieties in coconut
12. List one variety released for ball copra production
16

Lecture.28
Salient breeding achievements in Areca nut and oil palm
Arecanut: Areca catechu Family: Arecaceae
India is the largest producer of arecanut in the world. The country earns about
Rs. 45 million annually by exporting arecanut in different forms. The current production
is about 5.59 lakh tonnes from an area of 3.97 lakh hectares. Compared with 1960-61
figures, it is seen that the area has increased by two and a half times and production by
three and a half times. The productivity increased from 845 kg/ha to 1243kg/ha.
Karnataka, Kerala, Assam and Tamil Nadu are the important states producing arecanut.
Areca palm, a monocot, belongs to Family: Arecaceae (Syn: Palmae). Areca was
a monospecific genus. The genus expanded rapidly from its monospecific status and at
present contains about 76 species. Areca catechu is the only cultivated species used as a
masticatory, though nuts of Areca triandra also can be chewed. The A.triandra has
ornamental value due to suckering habit and heavy bunches of red nuts. The A. concinna
is another suckering palm with scarlet red fruits. In Sri Lanka, its fruits are occasionally
chewed.
Research Centres working on arecanut

1) CPCRI Regional Station, Vittal. Karnataka
2) CPCRI Research Centre, Mohitnagar (W.B)
3) CPCRI Research Centre, Kahikuchi (Assam)
1

Cultivars of Areca catechu

Four botanical varieties of Areca catechu were reported, namely Areca catechu
var. communis, A.catechu var.silvatica, A.catechu var. batanensis and A.catechu var.
longicarpa based on the size and shape of fruits and kernel. A new cultivar A.catechu
var.deliciosa with sweet kernel has been reported from Karnataka. The somatic
chromosome number of A. catechu is 2n = 32.
Germplasm and Varieties

Arecanut is one of the very few examples, wherein crop improvement work
combined with improved input technologies contributed to revolutionize production and
productivity. Evolving high-yielding and improved varieties of arecanut has been
successful through the introduction of indigenous and exotic types and selection of
mother palms, seed nuts and seedlings. In recent years, hybridization and exploitation of
dwarfing genes for breeding dwarf and high-yielding varieties have been initiated.
Germplasm repository at CPCRI regional station, Vittal, Karnataka, consists of

164 accessions. This includes 23 exotic introductions from Fiji, Mauritius, China, Sri
Lanka, Indonesia, Vietnam, Singapore and Australia, representing 6 species of Areca and
141 indigenous types obtained from different parts of India.
Screening of germplasm accessions led to the release of several high-yielding varieties,
like the following:
Mangala (VTL-3): An introduction from Peking China released for cultivation during
the year 1972.

Mangala
Features
1) A semi tall variety with good chewing and marketing quality,
2) Early bearing with high percentage of fruit set and high yield,
3) Quicker stabilization of production, Yield : 3.0 kg chali/palm/year
4) Nuts are medium size with oval or egg shape.
Recommendation: For Coastal Karnataka and Kerala. (up to an altitude of 800m).

Mangala variety suffers if planted in heavily shaded old plantation.
Sumangala (VTL-11): It is an introduction from Indonesia. Palm is tall with partially

drooping habit. Under ideal conditions, it flowers in 4-5 years. The nuts are deep yellow
to orange in colour and oblong to round in shape. It gives an average yield of 17.25 kg
ripe nuts/palm/year at 10th year.
Sree Mangala (VTL-17): An introduction from Singapore, its habit, flowering and fruit
characters are similar to Sumangala. It gives an average yield of 15.63 kg/palm/year.
Swarnamangala (VTL-12)
Selection from Saigon.Regular bearer, consistent yielder with homogenous
population .Trees are semi tall to tall, stem sturdy with shorter internodes having partially
drooping crown with well placed bunches. Average number of bunches/palm/year - 3.90.
Orange to deep yellow color oblong to round and bold ripe nuts. Bears from the 4th year
with a potential yield (kg chali/palm/year) - 6.28 and average yield (kg chali/palm/year) -
3

3.88 with high recovery of chali (26.52%) from fresh nuts. Recommended regions/areas
for cultivation- Irrigated areas of Karnataka and Kerala
General recommendation for production of genetically superior planting material is Inter
se mating between typical palms to produce true to type planting materials
Mohitnagar: This is an indigenous cultivar from West Bengal. The important feature of
this variety is its greater uniformity. The bunches are well-spaced and nuts are loosely
arranged on the spikes which help in uniform development and enable efficient plant-
protection measures. Early stabilization of yield and high annual yield potential of 3.7 kg
chali/palm (15.8 kg ripe nuts) are its characteristics.
Calicut 17: Recommended for Andaman and Nicobar Islands, this is tall with longer
internodes and crown. The striking feature of this variety is its consistent and high yield
potential (18.89 kg ripe nuts/palm/year with a chali yield of 4.34 kg/ palm) having well-
placed bunches with round and bold nuts.
SAS1 (Sirsi Arecanut Selection- I): Recommended for the hill zone of Karnataka. It is
tall with compact canopy. It is a regular-bearer. Nuts are round and even sized and
closely arranged on compact bunches. It is suitable for both tender and ripe nut
processing. It has high curing percentage, yielding 4.60 kg chali/palm/year.
Besides, there are several cultivars designated by their name of the place where they are
grown.
Thirthahalli Grown in Malnad area of Karnataka preferred for tender nut processing.
Hirehalli Dwarf A dwarf mutant with closely spaced internodes from Karnataka
South Kanara Largely grown in South Kanara district of Karnataka and Kasargod of Kerala.
Palms are regular-bearing with large-sized nuts. Yields about 7 kg ripe
nuts/palm/year giving 1.5 kg chali per year.
Sreevardhan It is grown in coastal Maharashtra; Nuts are oval with marble white kernel
and tastier endosperm which are rated as the best quality. Yield is comparable

to South Kanara
The other important varieties grown in different States are Hirehalli Local
(Karnataka), Mettupalayam (Tamil Nadu) and Kahikuchi (Assam).
Hybridization
Hybridization programme in arecanut was initiated at Central Plantation Crops
Research Institute (CPCRI) Regional Station, Vittal, with specific objective of evolving
high-yielding and regular-bearing varieties, combining large-sized fruits with more
number of nuts/bunch, /combining semi tall, early bearing and high yield of Mangala
with quality of Sreevardhan, transferring more number of female flowers and high fruit
setting percentage from A. triandra and studying the combining ability for exploitation of
hybrid vigour. Intervarietal hybridization carried out among Mangala, Sumangala, Sree
Mangala, Mohitnagar, Thirthahalli and Hirehalli Dwarf and evaluation of hybrid
seedlings with respect to their performance did not result in selecting useful arecanut
hybrids so far. Utilization of dwarf mutants seems to be encouraging. The attempts in the
direction to establish plantation with short-statured palms are in progress. Hirehalli Dwarf
x Sumangala cross is promising with respect to yield (2.65 kg chali/palm) and combining
the dwarf stature.
Vittal Areca Hybrid- 1 (VTLAH-1)

Hybrid between Hirehalli Dwarf x Sumangala.
Dwarf type with reduced canopy and very sturdy stem.
Super imposition of nodes on the stem gives mechanical support to palms.
Partially drooping crown with well spread leaves.
Moderate yielder but early stabilization in nut yield.
Medium sized oval, yellow to orange nuts.
Average yield (kg chali/palm/year)- 2.54.
Recovery over fresh nut- 26.45 %.

Specific recommendation for seed production- Artificial crossing is suggested

between Hirehalli Dwarf and Sumangala for hybrid seed production. Only
sprouts/seedlings will be supplied after sorting and selection in the nursery.
Recommended regions/areas for cultivation- Coastal Karnataka and Kerala.
Harvesting and spraying easy because of the dwarfing nature and lesser cost
of cultivation.
Sun scorching and wind damage is minimal due to dwarfing nature.
OIL PALM
Oil palm: Elaeis guineensis Jacq. Family: Arecaceae
Elaeis is derived from the Greek word elaion meaning oil while the specific name
guineensis shows its origin from the Guinea coast. The other species under the genus are
E.olerifera and E. odora. E.oleifera, known as American oil palm. Elaeis guineensis
(African oil palm) is a diploid with 2n = 32.
Differentiating features of American oil palm and African oil palm
Sl. 9o Features American oil palm African oil palm
1 Botanical name Elaeis oleifera Elaeis guinensis
2 Stature Dwarf Tall
3 Leaflet arrangement on On one plane Alternative arrangement
the frond of leaflets
4 Quality of oil Better Comparatively poor
5 Yield Less More
6 Distribution Found only in America Cultivated in America,
Asia and Africa.
Classification of cultivars in African oil palm

Cultivars in the strict sense do not occur. The best classification is based on fruit
structure.
Dura: Shell usually 2-8 mm thick, low to medium mesocarp content (35-55%) kernels
large, no fibre ring. In Deli Durapalms, kernels tend to be larger, comprising 7-20% of
weight of fruits.

Tenera: Shell 0.5-4mm thick, medium to high mesocarp content (60-90%) fibre ring
darker in colour and encircles the endocarp. Higher sex ratio and larger number of
bunches than Dura.
Pisifera: Shellless with small pea- like kernels in fertile fruits. It is of little commercial
value, but is important in breeding commercial palms.
Oil palms can also be classified based on the colour of exocarp as follows:
9igrescens: Unripe fruit deep violet to black at apex and ivory coloured towards base.
This is the commonest type. Two forms are recognized on ripening. They are Rubro
nigrescens (ripe fruits deep reddish orange) it has the highest content of carotenoids and
carotene. It is the commonest form in West Africa and Rutilo nigrescens (ripe fruits
paler-orange with black cap on upper half).
Virescens: Unripe fruits green, ripening to light reddish orange with small greenish tip.
Anthocyanins little or absent.
Albescens: Fruits lack reddish colour at maturity as it contains little or no carotene. It
ripens to pale-yellow or ivory with a blackish or green cap on upper half.
Features differentiating fruit types of oil palm

Sl. 9o Characters/Composition Dura Tenera Pisifera
1 Mesocarp proportion in fruit 35-50 60 –96 98
(%)
2 Shell thickness (mm) 2 to 8 0.5 to 4 --
3 Oil percentage 15 % 36 % 25 %
4 Average proportion of shell 30 10 --
in fruit (%)
5 Average proportion of kernel 16 16 10
in fruit (%)

Germplasm Collection
World Collection: Search for assemblage of germplasm in oil palm started after the
Second World War. The first collection of E. guineensis was established at Nigerian
Institute for Oil-Palm Research (NIFOR) during 1961-1964. Subsequently prospection
for genetic materials was taken up at Ivory Coast, Palm Oil Research Institute of
Malaysia (PORIM) and at Republic of Zaire. A large germplasm was gathered at PORIM
and the collections from Nigeria provided valuable genes for high yield, dwarfism and un
saturation.
The Elaeis oleifera germplasm was assembled by PORIM, International Bureau
of Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR) and United Brands Company in Central America
from Central and South America, Surinam, Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica, Nicaragua
and Brazil.
Indian Collection: Oil palm was introduced to India towards the end of the 19th century
out of botancial curiosity. Systematic collection of oil palm materials was initiated during
1960s by the Department of Agriculture, Kerala. They introduced material from Malaysia
and Nigeria which consisted of Dura x dura, Dura x tenera, Dura x Pisifera and Tenera x
Tenera were planted at Oil Palm Station at Thodupuzha, Kerala. Active collection of oil
palm accessions was taken up by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research during
1979 and ex-situ field gene banks consisting of accessions from 11 countries are
maintained at National Research Centre for Oil Palm, Pedavegi (Andhra Pradesh), and
Research Centre of NRC for Oil Palm, Palode (Kerala). A cold tolerant accession of oil
palm is available at CPCRI Research Centre, Mohitnagar, West Bengal.
Crop Improvement
The main emphasis of breeding is to evolve varieties with high yield of palm oil,
the commercial oil extracted from the mesocarp, although the endosperm also contains
oil. Better oil quality with higher percentage of unsaturation reduced height increment,
tolerance to drought, pest and disease as well as precocity are also important considera-
tions.

Evaluation and selection of germplasm material and hybridization between

selected dura, Tenera and Pisifera were attempted for yield improvement. In India,
evaluation of introductions revealed that palms from Cote d'Ivoire are superior to NIFOR
palms. The population of Deli Dura is used around the world as a female line for
production of seeds. The AVROS line is the source of pisifer as used in Malaysia and
Indonesia owing to its good production capacity when it is combined with Deli duras. In
PORIM, the work was concentrated on inter-se crossing of materials from various origins
to form a new breeding population. Tenera hybrids between Deli Durax AVROS Pisifera
with tremendous yield potential were evolved. In India, 2 high-yielding teneras selected
from cross combinations involving 11 duras of Malaysian origin and 5 pisiferas of
Nigerian origin were released for cultivation. Considerable yield improvement was
reported in hybrid. The yield potential of salient hybrids is as follows
Yield potential of hybrids

Combinations FFB Yield (tonnes/ha) Oil yield (tonnes/ha)
Malaysian hybrid
DD x AVROS (4 hvbrids) 31.0 - 34.5 6.9 - 8.9
DD x Pumpy AVROS 33.3 8.6
Indian hybrid
Palode I 18.0 4.59
Palode II 17.5 4.46
To impart resistance to vascular wilt, spear rot and cercospora leaf spot,
identification of parental materials with improved resistance and breeding with such
materials and interspecific hybridization with E. oleifera are being attempted, The E.
oleifera produces oil with lower melting point (22° C), higher iodine value and
unsaturation (80%) giving a large liquid fraction which increases the commercial value of
oil. Crosses with E. oleifera, are being evaluated to develop progeny with superior quality
oil. In breeding for short compact palms, E. oleifera, Dura selections such as Dumpy
dura, Pobe dumpies and Indian dwarf are utilized as gene source for dwarfness. The
features of inter-specific hybrid with E. oleifera are given below.

Features of inter-specific hybrid with E. oleifera

Features /Character E. guineensis E. guineensis x E. oleifera E. oleifera
Height increment (m) 0.34 0.18 0.09
No. of leaflets 321 256 188
FFB 8 kg/ palm/yr 148 190 120
Bunch weight (kg) 18 12 12
Oil (%) 50 34 30
Unsaturated fatty acids 52 66 79
References
1. Chadha KL, Ravindran PN & Sahijram L. 2000. Biotechnology inHorticultural
and Plantation Crops. Malhotra Publ. House.
2. Chadha KL. 1998. Advances in Horticulture. Vol. IX. Plantation andSpices
Crops. Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi.
3. Chopra VL & Peter KV. Handbook of Industrial Crops. Haworth Press.Panama
International Publishers, New Delhi (Indian Ed.).
4. Balasimha,D. and Rajagopal,V. 2004. Arecanut.306 pp. CPCRI, Kasaragod

1. Mention the botanical name and family of Areca
2. Mention the botanical name and family of oilpalm
3. What is FFB in oil palm
4. How is the oil plam classified
5. what is the chromosome number of oilpalm
6. Differentiate American and African oil palm
7. Mention the places of research on arecanut
10

8. Name two species other than A.catechu
9. How oil palm is classified based on the colour
10. Name two varieties of areca nut
11

Lecture.29
Salient breeding achievements in palmyrah palm and rubber
PALMYRAH PALM
Palmyrah Palm: Borassus flabellifer Family: Arecaceae
The distinguishing characters of palm in this genus are their palmate, fan like
leaves and dioecious character –i.e., male and female flowers are borne on separate trees.
Next to coconut, palmyrah is the most abundant palm found in the world.
Crop Improvement
Yield potential of padaneer, height of the palm, bearing capacity, flowering in
off-season besides the main season and sugar content of the sap are the major economic
traits. The yield of padaneer in 38 palms was recorded for 3 consecutive years from 1982
at Srivilliputhur Palmyrah Research Station, Tamil Nadu. Of the 38 palms studied,
36.33%, 34.2% and 28.93% yielded padaneer in 1, 2 and 3 out of 3 years considered. The
samples of trees observed for 3 years together reveal that 68.4%, 36.82%, 31.56% and
5.26% of the palms are poor, low, moderate and good yielders respectively.
Male palm -excelled female palms in all characters except percentage of jaggery
recovered from padaneer. The tree with good yielding capacity can be used in hybridiza-
tion programme to evolve high-yelding palms.
Particulars Sex of palm
Male Female
Yield of padaneer per palm (litres) 115.87 107.31
Mean number of days of tapping 54.8 48.1
Recovery of padaneer W/W 14.98 15.44.

Quantity of jaggery obtained (kg/palm) 17.36 16.88
The tapper has to climb palmyrah palm 2-3 times a day. The tappable palm is
about 15-20 m or more in height. The height of palms becomes a limiting factor for the
tapper to cover more number of palms. Accidents, sometimes fatal, are not uncommon.
Screening for dwarf types is a very important objective in palmyrah breeding. With this
objective, 213 palms were observed for their height, among the mature palms available at
the Palmyrah Station Srivilliputhur, Tamil Nadu. Nearly 43.7% were semi-dwarf palms.
These trees can be utilized in hybridization programme to evolve dwarf plants.
The palms have been classified based on percentage of jaggery recorded for
padaneer. A total of 43 palms were considered.
Considering the criteria, plantation is screened and 16 (9 male and 7 female)
palms have been identified as elite palms for higher content of jaggery.
Mother palm selection in palmyrah

1) Age of the palm : Middle aged – 30 to 40 years
2) Stature of canopy: Dwarf and stout palms are selected. Trees with compact
leaves are preferred to long slender stemmed trees
3) Selection of seed nuts
i. Stage of maturity: Select bunches with 80 to 90 per cent ripe
fruits. Heap the selected fruit bunches for 5 to 6 days for automatic
detachment from bunches. Select plumpy and healthy seed nuts.
ii. Removal of mesocarp: Allow fruits to ferment for easy removal
of mesocarp. While removing mesocarp, the fibre adhering to seed
nut should be retained which help in absorption of water leading to
better germination.
iii. Sex of nuts
b. Seeds of single nut give == female trees
Double nuts give == one female and one male
Trinuts === Two male and one female

To maintain male and female ratios, it is better to collect 10 to 15 per cent of double nuts.
Varieties
In India, there is no recognized variety. But palmyrah palms growing in Sri Lanka
can be broadly classified into 2 varieties based on pigmentation of fruit skin. They are
black and red skinned fruits.
Black-skinned fruits have comparatively less red pigment on their skin. Red
skinned fruits have variable amounts of black pigments along with very liberal
distribution of red in their skin. Fruits and nut number per tree are significantly greater in
this variety. But pulp weight per nut is less; sugar, starch and protein constitute 77%,
10% and 2.5% of the pulp respectively. The alkaloids, amino acids and minerals are in
greater amount in red skinned varieties. The other favourable fruit features, along with
the sap-yielding characteristics of these varieties, seem to favour selection of red-skinned
fruit variety for commercial exploitation.
Released varieties
SVPR-1: Palmyrah research station, Srivaliputhur (TNAU) has released one improved
variety namely SVPR-1 Palmyrah palm.
Features
• Semi-dwarf type
• High padaneer yield of 298 litres per palm in a tapping duration of 95 days.
• Quality of padaneer: The padaneer of this variety has a high jaggery content (144 g
per litre of padaneer i.e., 14.40 %) and a high brix content.

RUBBER
Rubber: Hevea brasiliensis Family: Euphorbiaceae
Genus Hevea comprises of 10 species. All the species are diploids with 2n = 36
and can be crossed interspecifically by artificial pollination. Bark of all species contain
latex in all parts of their plants.
Rubber Research Institute of India (1995)

RRII was started on a hillock, 8 km east of Kottaym town, Kerala. The Central
Experiment Station of the Institute is located at Chethackal (Ranni) 50 km away from
Kottaym. It is a member of IRRDB (International Rubber Research and Development
Board.
Research Stations under RRII under different agroclimatic situations

Agartala (Tripura): Rubber Research Complex for North East India
Regional research stations at
1) Agartala (Tripura)
2) Guwahati (Assam)
3) Tura (Meghalaya)
4) Kolsab (Mizoram)
RRII has also set up regional research stations at
1) Dapchari (Maharastra)
2) Kamakhyanagar (Orissa)
3) Nagrakatta (WB)
4) Sukma (Chattisgarh)
5) Burliar (TN)
6) Nettana (Karnataka) and
7) Padiyoor (Kerala)

Major research Priorities are

1. Evolving and introducing location specific high yielding clones – Molecular
biology and genetic engineering
2. Efficient field management systems to reduce immaturity period.
3. Introducing appropriate rubber based farming systems in different agroclimatic
regions.
4. Exploitation systems to reduce tapping cost.
5. Optimization of plant protection schedule and molecular approaches in plant
disease control.
Crop Improvement
Improvement of a tree crop like rubber is relatively slow and laborious. Nearly 30
years are required for recommending a new clone for commercial planting. The phe-
nomenal increase in yield of rubber has been achieved after years of repeated selection of
high-yielding mother trees followed by their vegetative multiplication, controlled
pollination among high-yielding clones and further selection from among progeny.
"'Current approach is to breed clones with diverse desirable characters such as resistance
to biotic and abiotic stresses and utilizing wild germplasm in breeding programmes.
Germplasm: The spectrum of Hevea germplasm can be broadly classified into those
existing in the primary centre of diversity in Brazil and those developed in centres of
secondary diversity. Thus, it is a collection of all genotypes that represent the entire
genepool, including current popular clones, obsolete clones and wild accessions from the
centre of diversity in Brazil. Rubber Research Institute of India, Kottayam, Kerala,
maintains a collection of 174 exotic and indigenous clones of Wickham origin in a clone
museum. In addition, 4,967 accessions representing the wild Brazilian germplasm
collected through germplasm exchange programmes are also maintained. International
Rubber Research and Development Board (IRRDB) and Association of Natural Rubber
Producing Countries (AN-RFC) are agencies associated with the clone exchange
programmes.

Clones
Clones are group of plants produced by vegetative propagation from single trees.
All individual trees of a clone possess identical genetic constitution, which is responsible
for the uniformity existing among them. Clones are usually named after the estates,
institutes or stations from where they have originated and indicated as abbreviations.
Based on the type of mother tree, from which the clone is derived, they are classified as:
Primary clone: Mother tree is of unknown parentage, selection of mother tree is based
on superior performance in the existing plantation. Tjir - I, GT I, PB 86, PR 107 and PB
28/59 are primary clones.
Secondary clone: Mother tree is evolved by controlled pollination between 2 primary

clones. RM 600 (Tjir I X PB 86) and RR II 105 (Tjir I X GL - I) are secondary clones.
Tertiary clone: Mother tree is evolved by controlled pollination in which at least one or
both parents are secondary clones. RRIM703 (RRIM 600 x RRIM 500) is an example. In
order to obviate the potential risks involved in the monoclone culture, cultivation of a
mixture of clones which is categorized as follows is recommended:
Category I: Clones like RRII 105 (in traditional areas) along with RRIM 600 and GT I
(in non-traditional areas) to cover upto 50% of the total area. Other important clones
under this category are PB 260, RRII 414 and RRII 430.
Category II: Clones like RRIM 600, GT 1, PB 28/59, PB 217 and RRIM 703 to cover
upto 50% of the total area. Other important clones in this category are RRII 5, RRII 203,
RRII 417 and RRII 422.
Category III: The cultivars under it are divided into 3 categories which can cover upto
15% of the total area in aggregate. They are:
• RRII 5, RRII 203, PB 255, PB 2611 and PB 235

• Tjir I, PB 86, GI 1, PR 107 and RRIM 605

• RRII 50, RRII 51, RRII 52, RRII 109, RRII 116 and RRII 176
Important clones are described below

RRII105: A clone evolved by Rubber Research Institute of India and currently enjoying
maximum popularity in the country. Parents are Tjir I and GI 1. Trunk is tall and straight.
Branching is good with strong unions, canopy dense, foliage dark green, leaflets long and
glossy, wintering, and refoliation early and partial, Virgin and renewed bark thickness
good. Average yield is 2,400 kg/ha/year. Latex is white and DEC high. The clone has a
fair degree of tolerance to abnormal leaf fall. Highly susceptible to pink disease and
incidence of powdery mildew is medium. Occurrence of tapping panel dryness is high
and therefore, to be tapped under half spiral once in 3 days (s2d3).
RRIM 600: It is a high-yielding variety evolved by the Rubber Research Institute of

Malaysia and extensively grown in all rubber growing countries. Parents are Tjir 1 and
PB 86. Tall straight trunk, moderate to fairly heavy branching and branch unions rather
weak. It shows normal wintering and refoliation. Girth at opening is low. Girth increment
after opening high and virgin bark thickness is low. Thickness of renewed bark is high
usually results in trend. Average annual yield is 1,387 kg/ha. Latex is unsuitable for
concentration. It is susceptible to diseases caused by Phytophthora.
GT 1: A primary clone developed in Indonesia and extensively planted in all rubber-

growing countries. Trunk upright with variable branching habit. Wintering and refoliation
late and often partial. Girth at opening medium to high. Girth increment on tapping and
virgin and renewed bark thickness medium. Average annual yield is 1,400 kg/ ha/year.
Latex is white. Occurrence of tapping panel dryness and incidence of pink disease mild.
Abnormal leaf fall mild to medium and powdery mildew medium to severe.
RRII 414
Country of origin India

Developed by Rubber Research Institute of India

Parentage RRII 105 x RRIC 100
Mean Yield 4 Years 10 Years
Small scale evaluation(g/tree/tap) - 74.02(40%)*

Large scale evaluation(g/tree/tap) 56.68(26%)*
* Values in brackets indicate percentage improvement over RRII 105
Vigour High
Girth increment on tapping Average
Trunk Tall, straight and cylindrical with prominent leaf scar,
slightly leaning
Branching pattern Very high heavy branches with strong union
Canopy Open, broad and heavy
Virgin bark thickness Above average
Renewed bark High
thickness
Number of latex vessel rows Above average in both virgin and renewed bark
Incidence of major diseases Pink – moderate
and pests Powdery mildew – high
Abnormal leaf fall – moderate
Corynespora leaf fall - low
Reaction to stresses Wind - average tolerence
Occurrence of TPD Low
DRC Above average
Color of latex White
Special features Yield better than RRII 105 in the first year of tapping in
the on-farm trial and comparable to that of RRII 105 in
the multilocation trials

RRII 430

Vigour Above average
Girth increment on Average
tapping
Trunk Tall straight cylindrical stem with smooth bark
Branching pattern Balanced branching with strong branch union. Moderate to
heavy branches
Canopy Open broad and heavy with large glossy leaves
Virgin bark thickness High
Renewed bark thickness High
Number of latex vessel Above average in both virgin and renewed bark
rows
Incidence of major Pink – low
diseases and pests Powdery mildew - very high
Abnormal leaf fall – low
Corynespora leaf fall - low
Reaction to stresses Wind - high tolerance
DRC High
Special features Yield better than RRII 105 in the first year of tapping in on-
farm trial and in multilocation trials

PB 28/59: A Malaysian clone with fluted and crooked trunk sometimes showing
tendency for leaning, Moderate to heavy branches, Girth at opening medium and girth
increment on tapping poor. Virgin bark thickness low thickness on renewal above
average. Average annual yield is 1,423 kg/ha/year. Susceptibility to wind damage is
medium. Occurrence of tapping panel dryness is severe. The clone is highly prone to
abnormal leaf fall, pink and powdery mildew diseases.
PB 217: The parents of this Malaysian clone are PB 5/51 and PB 6/9. Trunk tall and
straight. Wintering and refoliation are normal to late. Girth at opening is medium, girth
increment on tapping high. Virgin bark thickness is low but renewed bark is medium in
thickness. Average yield is 1,257 kg/ha/year. Latex colour is light yellow. Wind damage
is very low. Tapping panel dryness mild. Incidence of phytophthora severe in Malaysia
but low in India. Pink and powdery mildew diseases severe.
RRIM 703: The parents of this clone are RRIM 600 and RRIM 500. It has an upright
trunk. High yielding with yield trend from the eighth year of tapping. Girth at opening is
high to medium and girth increment on tapping low. Virgin bark thickness is high and
renewed bark thickness medium to high showing tolerance to powdery mildew. The
average annual yield is 1,310 kg/ha/year. Latex colour is light yellow. Wind damage and
tapping panel dryness high. Abnormal leaf fall is severe in India, though reported to be
only mild in Malaysia. Occurrence of powdery mildew is mild. The clone is prone to
severe pink disease.
PB 217
Country of origin Malaysia
Developed by Prang Besar Estate
Parentage PB 5/51 x PB 6/9
Mean Yield 5 Years 10 Years 15 Years
Large scale evaluation(g/tree/tap) 38.39 48.86 59.90
10

Commercial evaluation(kg/ha/yr) 1262 1510 1508

Vigour Average
Incidence of major diseases Pink-severe
and pests Powdery mildew-severe
Abnormal leaf fall - moderate
Reaction to stresses Cold-average tolerance
Drought-above average tolerance with respect to yield but
growth is affected
DRC Average
Special features A hardy clone suitable for small growers. Shows good
response to stimulation.
RRII 5
Parentage Primary clone (Selected from Malankara Estate,
Thodupuzha)

On farm evaluation(kg/ha/yr) 1352
Incidence of major diseases Pink – mild
and pests Powdery mildew - moderate to severe
Abnormal leaf fall - moderate to severe
Wind - above average tolerance
Reaction to stresses Wind - above average tolerance
Occurrence of TPD High
DRC Average
Special features Very vigorous clone with above average yield. Can be
11

used as a latex timber clone
RRII 203
Parentage PB 86 x Mil 3/2
Small scale evaluation(g/tree/tap) 56.08 78.19 82.12

On farm evaluation(kg/ha/yr) 1396 1649* 1811
* Average yield from 2 locations
Incidence of major diseases and Pink-moderate
pests Powdery mildew-moderate
Abnormal leaf fall-moderate
Reaction to stresses Cold - average tolerance
Wind - average tolerance
DRC High
Special features Latex coagulation shows black discolouration
which does not affect the quality of rubber. Can be
used as a latex timber clone.
RRII 417
12


tapping
Trunk Tall and more or less straight with smooth bark
Branching pattern High, balanced with moderate to heavy branches
Canopy Broad, partially closed and heavey with semi glossy dark
green leaves restricted to the top
Virgin bark thickness Average
Renewed bark thickness High
rows
Incidence of major Pink – moderate
diseases and pests Powder mildew - very high
Abnormal leaf fall - low to moderate
Corynespora leaf fall - moderate
Reaction to stresses Wind - high tolerance
DRC High
farm trial and in multilocation trials.
RRII 422
13


* Values indicate percentage improvement over RRII 105
tapping
Trunk Crooked and high branching
Branching pattern Moderate heavy branches with strong union
Canopy Open, narrow and dark green glossy leaves
Virgin bark thickness Average
Renewed bark thickness Above average
rows
Incidence of major Pink – low
diseases and pests Powdery mildew – high
Abnormal leaf fall – low
Corynespora leaf fall - moderate
Reaction to stresses Wind - tolerance
DRC High
farm trial and in multilocation trials
RRII 52
Parentage Primary clone
Mean Yield 5 Years
14

Small scale evaluation(g/tree/tap) 44.08

Vigour Average
Trunk Straight and cylindrical
Branching pattern Balanced with acute angled secondaries
Canopy Medium sized and open
Incidence of major diseases and pests Moderate
DRC Average
References
1. Anonymous 1985. Rubber and its Cultivation. The Rubber Board of India
3. Chadha KL. 1998. Advances in Horticulture. Vol. IX. Plantation and Spices Crops.
Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi.

1. List out the steps involved in mother palm selection in palmyrah
2. List out the steps involved in seed nut selection in palmyrah
3. Describe SVPR1
4. What is the botanical name and family of rubber?
5. What is ploidy status of rubber? mention the chromosome number of rubber
6. List out the major research priorities in rubber
7. What is secondary clone?
8. Describe RRII105
9. Where is RRII located?
10. Name the centres work under RRII
15

Lecture.30
Genetic resources, objectives of breeding, principles and method of
breeding and salient breeding achievements in cashew
Cashew: Anacardium occidentale Family: Anacrdiaceae
The family Anacardiaceae comprises about 60 genera and 400 species of trees and
shrubs with resinous bark. Though Anacardium is described as a small genus with only 8
species, over 20 species are known to exist in Central and South America. The species of
Anacardium vary largely with respect to size, shape and colour of peduncle and size and
shape of nut and leaves. The A. gigantium from Surinam has the biggest apple, whereas
A. rhinocarpus and A. spruceanum possessing hard wood are useful as root stocks and A.
occidentale is a diploid with 2n= 42.
Germplasm: The early attempts for germplasm collection in India were made
during 1952-1957 with sanctioning of adhoc schemes in Kerala (Kottarakkara),
Karnataka (Ullal) Andhra Pradesh (Bapatla), Assam (Daregaon) and Maharashtra
(Vengurla). A total of 1,490 germplasm accessions have been conserved at National
Research Centre on Cashew at Puttur and at different cashew research stations in India,
These are primarily indigenous types' selected from the seedling progenies of the limited
initial introductions with few exotic types from Brazil, Nairobi, Lindi, Nacala,
Mozambique, Ex Tanganya, Singapore, Australia and Republic of Panama. The

germplasm collections also include allied species of Anacardium such as A.

microsepalum, A. pumilum and A. orthonianum.
In-situ conservation of cashew germplasm is done only in the Amazon forests of

Brazil, the original home of cashew. Subsequent to the establishment of NRCC at Puttur
(Karnataka) in 1986, (now it is upgraded as Directorate of Cashew Research (DCR))
germplasm collection through seeds was discontinued. In the National Gene Bank of
NRCC, Puttur, ex-situ conservation of 392 clonal germplasm collections are maintained.
Similarly, Regional Cashew Gene Bank is established at AICRP on Cashew at Vengurla,
Bhubaneswar, Madakathara and Chintamani. Immediate priority of Indian cashew
germplasm programme is to enhance the genetic variability through introduction of exot-
ic types from Central America and Brazil, where diverse types including dwarf ones are
existing.
Breeding objective in cashew
1) High yield with bold nuts: Cashew being primarily export oriented crop, it is
necessary to give utmost priority for developing varieties and hybrids with export
grade kernels. Nuts should be big and plumpy to produce more of W-180 grades.
Yield of more than 10 kg per tree per year.
Fruit setting percentage in cashew: 1 to 18 %
2) Dwarf and compact canopy: To facilitate high density planting.

3) Short flowering phase: To reduce the chances of losing crop due to pest
infestation and also to minimize the cost of collection of nuts.
4) High sex ratio: Adequate care should be exercised in selecting the trees with
high bisexual flowers. Recent studies have also emphasized the importance of
staminate flowers to provide more efficient pollen so the trees with mixed phase and
also high sex ratio are to be preferred as parents over types which have distinct male
phase and hermaphrodite phase.

5) Breeding for tea mosquito resistance: One of the production constraints in

cashew is the severe incidence of tea mosquito bug in some areas. So production of
varieties which show field tolerance to tea mosquito bug needs priority.
6) High shelling percentage: Processing industries look forward for high recovery
of cashew kernels. Currently, for release of any variety standards fixed stipulate that
a minimum of 28 % shelling percentage should be recorded.
7) 1utrient quality index: Develop varieties with high nutritive value. In cashew
high protein (> 35 g protein, lysine > 50 micro gram per mg protein and < 14 g of
sugar is suggested).
Cashew kernel is good even compared to almond. It contains protein = 32 to 70 g
and have more of lysine i.e., quality protein, Starch = 21 to 33, Lipids
Breeding achievements in cashew: In the past cashew was primarily propagated for
soil conservation and forestation. At present due to the effort of research more than 40
varieties/hybrids have been released. Of these 25 varieties are selection from germplasm
and 15 are developed through hybridization and selection.
Varieties and Hybrids: Since cashew is primarily a cross-pollinated crop, it is highly

heterozygous and segregation has resulted in considerable variations in its seedling
population. An ideal cashew plant should have dwarf and compact canopy with intensive
branching habit, short flowering and fruiting phase, > 20% perfect flowers, 8-10
nuts/panicle, medium to bold nuts (8-10 g) with higher shelling percentage of > 28, high
yield potential (> 20 kg/tree/year) and tolerance to major pests and diseases.
Evaluation of seedling progenies at different cashew research stations resulted in the
identification of superior genotypes for several economic characters.
In order to combine prolific bearing with other desirable traits like bold nut,
cluster-bearing habit and compact canopy, hybridization with parents selected for these
could easily be commercially utilized in cashew through softwood grafting. Among the
15 hybrids released in India 11 have kernel grade of W 180 to W 210. These 11 hybrids
have at least one of the parents with bold nut character (Brazil-18, K-30-1 and Vetore-56)

and thus prove the usefulness of selecting parents with bold nut character for transmitting
this trait to hybrid. Short duration of flowering (Anakkayam1), high sex ratio and longer
mixed phase, intense branching, high shelling (%) and high nutritive value of kernels are
also looked in the parents.

Cashew varieties developed through selection from germplasm in India

Research Station Variety Source of Yield 1ut weight Kernel Shelling Kernel grade
germplasm potential (g) weight (g) (%)
(kg/tree)
Directorate of Selection 1 VTH 107/31 10.0 7.6 2.2 28.8 W 210
Cashew Research
Puttur, Selection 2 VTH 40/11 9.0 9.2 2.5 28.6 W210
Karnataka
Horticultural Ullal 1 8/46 16.0 6.7 2.1 30.7 W210
Research Station, Taliparamba
Ullal, Karnataka Ullal 2 3/67 Guntur 9.0 6.0 1.8 30.5 W240
Ullal 3 5/37 Manjeri 14.7 7.0 2.0 30.7 W210

Ullal 4 2/77 Tuni 9.5 7.2 2.2 31.0 W 210
(UN-50) 2/27 Nileshwar 10.5 9.0 2.9 32.8 W 180
Agricultural Chintamani 18/46
Research Station, Taliparamba 7.2 6.9 2.1 31.0 W210
Chintamani,
Karnataka
Cashew Research BPP 3 3/3 11.0 4.8 1.3 28.1 W400
Station, Bapatla, Simhachalam
Andhra Pradesh
BPP 4 9/8 Epurupalem 10.5 6.0 1.3 23.0 W 400
BPP 5 Tree No.1 11.0 5.2 1.2 24.0 W 400
BPP 6 Tree No. 56 10.5 5.2 1.2 24.0 W400

Regional Research Jhargram 1 Tree No. 16 of 8.5 5.0 1.5 0.0 W 320
Station, Jhargram, Bapatla
West Bengal

Research Station Variety Source of Yield 1ut Kernel Shelling Kernel grade
germplasm potential weight(g weight (%)
(kg/tree) ) (g)
Cashew Research Anakkayam 1 BLA 139- 12.0 6.0 1.7 28.0 W280
Station, 1(T.No. 13-9 of
Anakkayam, Bapatla)
Kerala Sulabha K-1 0-2 23.34 9.8 2.5 25.51 W210
Mridhula PTR 1-1 3.31 3.6 1.4 38.87 W450
Cashew Research Madakkathara BLA 39-4 13.8 6.2 1.6 26.8 W 280
Station, 1 (T.No.39 of
Madakkathara Bapatla)
Anakkayam , Madakkathara NDR 2- 1 17.0 7.3 2.0 26.2 W 280
Kerala 2 (Nedunellur2-1)
K 22 1 Kottarakkara 22 13.2 6.2 1.6 26.5 W 280
Regional Fruit Vengurla 1 Ansur 1 19.0 6.2 1.9 31.0 W 320

Research Station,
Vengurla, Vengurla 2 WBDC - VI 24.0 4.3 1.4 32.0 W 320
Maharashtra
Regional Research VRI 1 M 10/4 7.2 5.0 1.4 28.0 W 320
Station, (Vazhisodhanai
Vridhachalam, Palayam)
Tamil Nadu
VRI 2 M 44/3 (T.No. 7.4 5.1 1.4 28.3 W 320

1668of
Kattupalli)

VRI 3 M 26/2 10.0 7.2 2.1 29.1 W 320

(Edayanchavadi)
VRI 4 Selection from

Vazhisodanipalay 18.10 6.63 28.5
am of Cuddalore
taluk of Tamil
Nadu

Cashew hybrids developed India
Research station Hybrid Yield 1ut Kernel Shelling Kernel

(kg/tree) weight weight (%) grade
(g) (g)
Cashew Research Station, BPP1 10.0 5.0 1.3 27.5 W400

Bapatla, Andhra Pradesh (H2/11)
BPP2 11.0 4.0 1.0 25.7 W450

(H2/12
BPP8 14.5 8.2 2.3 29.0 W210

(H2/16)
Cashew Research Station, Dhana 17.5 9.5 2.2 28.0 W210

Madakkathara, Kerala (H 1608)
Kanaka 19.0 6.8 2.1 31.0 W210

(H 1598)
Priyanka 16.9 10.8 2.8 26.5 W 180

(H 1591)
Amrutha 18.4 7.2 2.2 31.6 W210

(H 1597)
Cashew Research Station, Dharasree 15.0 7.8 2.1 26.9 W280

Anakkayam, Kerala
Anagha 13.7 10.0 2.9 29.0 W180
(H-8-1-)
Akshaya 11.8 11.0 .3.1 28.4 W 180

(H-7-6)

Research station Hybrid Yield 1ut Kernel Shelling Kernel

(kg/tree) weight weight (%) grade
(g) (g)
Regional Fruit Research Vengurla 3 14.4 9.1 2.4 27.0 W 210

Station, Vengurla,
Maharashtra Vengurla 4 17.2 7.7 2.4 31.0 W210
Vengurla 5 16.6 4.5 1.3 30.0 W 400
Vengurla 6 13.8 8.0 2.2 28.0 W 210
Vengurla 7 18.5 10.0 2.9 30.5 W 180
Regional Research VRI (CW)

Station, Vridhachalam, H1 16.5 7.2 2.2 30.5 W210
Tamil Nadu M 26/2 x M
26/1

References
1. Damodaran VK, Vilaschandran T &.Valsalakumari PK. 1979. Research
onCashew in India. KAU, Trichur.
2. Raj PS & Vidyachandra B. 1981. Review of Work Done on Cashew.
UASResearch Series No.6, Bangalore.
3. Chadha KL. 1998. Advances in Horticulture. Vol. IX. Plantation and Spices

1. Write the botanical name and family to which the cashew belongs
2. Mention the chromosome number of cashew
3. List out the breeding objectives of cashew
4. What is the fruit setting percentage of cashew?
5. What is the nutritive content of cashew?
6. Where is the headquaters for cashew research located?
7. Mention the places where cashew research is taken up
8. Mention any two varieties evolved through selection
9. List out the hybrids released in cashew
10. How is the cashew kernels graded?
10

Lecture.31
salient breeding achievements in coffee
Coffee: Coffea species Family: Rubiaceae
Eucoffea includes most of the useful species of the genus. Coffea arabica, Coffea
canephora and Coffea liberica are some of the species that found their place into
commercial cultivation in India. The basic genome in the genus coffea is x = 11. In
Eucoffea, all species are diploids with 2n = 22 except C. arabica (2n= 44) which is
tetraploid.
Arabica Coffee: The C.arabica is a small tree with dark green leaves. The flower buds
are produced during October – March and flowers blossom 9-10 days after the receipt of
blosoom showers. Arabica is self fertile. The fertilized ovary grows into a fruit in 8-9
months.
Robusta Coffee: The Coffea canephora is bigger tree than Arabica. Flowers per clusters
are more. It is a lowland coffee with wider geographic distribution. It grows under
relatively more open and humid conditions than Arabica.
Tree Coffee: The Coffea liberica is a large bearing big broad, dark green and leathery
leaves. The flowers and fruits are larger and take one year to mature. The ripe fruits are
yellow to reddish- brown in colour.
Origin
Arabica coffee: Ethiopia – In a place called Caffa.
It occurs naturally in forests between 450 to 600 m elevation (1400 to 1800 ft
elevation)

Robusta coffee = Of Central African origin

Liberica coffee: Cultivated almost at sea level in Liberia.
Coffee Research in India

1892 : UPASI (United Planters Association of South India was organized to tackle
various problems of coffee industry
1925 : By the efforts of Dr. L. C. Coleman (Then Director of Agriculture) Coffee
Experiment Station (CES) was started at Balehonnur, with following objectives;
1) To breed rust resistant selections
2) To undertake research on control of pests and diseases
1938 : Release old arabica selections (S-288 and S-333) from CES
1946 : Coffee Experiment Station was taken over by Coffee Board and established
Central Coffee Research Institute (CCRI)
Substations and regional stations to tackle regional problems in coffee
Sub Stations at Chettalli, Coorg Dist.
Regional Coffee Research Stations, At

1) Chintapalli, RV Nagar (Raghavendra Nagar), AndraPradesh,
2) Chundale, Kalpatta, Kerala – For Robusta Coffee
3) Thandikudi, Palani Hills, T.N.
4) Diphu, Assam
Crop Improvement
Germplasm Collections: The earlier collections made during 1930s totalling 1,462 were
of indigenous origin from seeds collected from vigorous, disease resistant Arabica and
Robusta plants from various estates. This included many putative hybrids such as Kents,
Coorgs, 5.26 and 5.31 (both Liberica x Arabica origin) and Devamachy hybrid Robusta x
Arabica origin)
Collection of exotic germplasm was started in 1953 and introductions were made
from all coffee growing countries including Ethiopia, the homeland of coffee. Early

introduction of Robusta coffee was from Sri Lanka and Indonesia, although later
introductions were made from Costa Rica, Uganda, Madagascar and Ivory Coast. The
germplasm collections were maintained in the gene bank of Central Coffee Research
Institute, Balehonnur:They were

C. arabica: About 280 varieties, cultivars and selections
C. canephora: 21 exotic collections including 3 varieties and one sub-variety
Other Species: 18 species belonging to the genus Coffea and closely related genus
Psilanthus.
Hybrid lines: Coffee lines and hybrid lines showing varying degrees of resistance to leaf
rust were introduced from Central Rust Research Centre, Portugal
Hybrido-de-Timor: a spontaneous hybrid of C. canephora x C. arabica from Timor

Islands was introduced, whereas Catimor: Caturra x hybrids-de-Timor; Villa Sarchi x
Hibrido-de-Tirrior and Catirnor x Catuai (Caturra x Mundo Novo) were also collected.
Interspecific hybrids: C. Congensis x C. canephora; C. liberica x C. eugenioides

The hybrids resembled Arabica in cup quality and possessed tolerance to drought and
rust.
Varieties: The selections and introductions were further improved by employing pure-
line breeding, intervarietal crossing, back-crossing and interspecific hybridization. The
selections were released for cultivation after zonal assessment.
Arabica Varieties
Selection 1 (S 288): This variety is a tetraploid hybrid derived from S-26 which is
supposed to be a progeny of natural cross between' C. liberica x C arabica. It is resistant
to leaf rust race I and II. Though this is a high-yielder with quality similar to Arabica,

seed abnormalities are very frequent. However, because of its wide adaptability to varied
agroclimatic conditions, it is still being cultivated in some areas.
Selection 3 (S-795): It is a cross-bred line of S-288 x Kents. It has bold fruits and seeds
of good quality. The variety is resistant to race I and II of leaf rust. It has a yield potential
of 700-1,200 kg clean coffee/ha with 75%; “A” grade and cup quality 5-6.
Selection 5: It "is derived from a cross between Devamachy x S-881 (wild Arabica from
Rurne Sudan. Devamachy is a spontaneous hybrid of Robusta x Arabica spotted in
Coorg, It has small, oblong, leathery leaves and oblong fruits and seeds. It has an yield
potential of 900 to 1,100kg clean coffee/ha.
Selection 6: A hybrid between S-274 (Robusta) x Kents. Its plants are larger with
Robusta type branching. Fruit is medium to bold with cup quality similar to Arabica. It
has an yield potential of 900 to -1,000 kg clean coffee/ha with high “A” grade beans.
Selection 7: Derived from San Ramon (a dwarf Arabica variety from Columbia) crosses.
San Ramon was crossed with S-1406 to obtain Selection 7.1. Selection 7.2 is a cross
between dwarfs of 7.1 x Agaro. This hybrid when crossed with Hybrido-de-Timor,
Selection 7.3 was obtained. Selection 7.3 shows high resistance to leaf rust. Its plants are
dwarf.
Selection 8: It is derived through pure-line selection of Hybrido-de-Timor (HDT). It

shows the highest resistance to leaf rust. It produces drooping branches, bears moderately
bold fruits with quality similar to Arabica.
Selection 9: Cross-bread line of Hibrido-de-Timor x Tafarikela, its plants are drought

hardy. Bean is medium to bold. Nearly 70% of the plants in the progeny are resistant to
rust.

Selection 10 (Caturra crosses): Caturra is a'dwaf’ type in Arabica. Some crosses of

Catura with S 795, Cioccie and Hibrido-de-Timor show resistance to many races of rust.
Selection 11: Progeny of C. liberica x C. eugenoides. Its plants show field resistance to
rust and drought hardiness.
Cauvery: It is derived from Catimor lines which is a cross between Caturra and Hibrido-
de-Timor. The plants are dwarf and highly suitable for high-density planting. It shows
high degree of synchronised flowering, fruit set and fruit ripening. It shows a high yield
potential of 1,000 to 2,000 kg clean coffee/ha. It produces more A grade coffee with
superior cup quality.
Chandragiri coffee:
It is a newly released coffee in 2007-08 by Coffee Board with the original source
from Portugal .It was introduced in the year 1975 to CCRI Balehonnur from Portugal.
Farm trials and intensive research trials were taken up at CCRI Balehonnur.
Features
1. Bushy growth with slightly bigger leaves than Cauvery coffee
2. Bigger sized berries: It produces 25 per cent bigger sized berries compared to
other varieties.
3. Resistant to leaf rust: Lower (5 to 7 %) leaf rust incidence in this variety is
reported compared to other varieties (20 to 40 %).
4. Tolerant to drought
Robusta Varieties
Coffea canephora was introduced to India after the appearance of leaf rust in
Arabica. Now, it has become popular as a cultivated species of coffee. Robusta coffee is
highly cross-pollinated and high-yielding selections were recommended for cultivation.

Sel-lR (S-274): This is a single plant progeny giving 1,400-2,500 kg clean coffee/ha. It
can come up even at lower elevations and shows high resistance to leaf rust Growth is
vigorous but with shallow root system. Its fruits are bold giving 43% “A” grade coffee.
Sel-2R (S-270): This also is a single plant progeny selection Robusta giving high yield
but fruits are not as bold as in Sel-lR.
Sel-3 R: An interspecific hybrid between C. congensis and C. canephora with back

crossed to C. canephora. C. congensis is a native of Congo in Africa, showing compact
plant size, better quality and lower caffeine content. The hybrid showed bush size of
congenesis, fruits as in Robusta with low-caffeine content and quality of cogenesis. A
dwarf mutant of this hybrid population has been recently spotted in Wynad.
References
1. Indian Coffee (Monthly) By Coffee Board, No –1, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Road, P.B.
No.- 5366, Bangalore-1
3. Chadha KL. 1998. Advances in Horticulture. Vol. IX. Plantation andSpices Crops.
Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi.

1. Name the two species of coffee
2. Mention the ploidy level of two species with the chromosome number
3. Compare and contrast the Arabica and robusta coffee
4. What is tree coffee?
5. List out the main objectives of coffee breeding
6. Expand CCRI and mention its location
7. List out the varieties of Arabica coffee
8. List out the varieties of robusta coffee
9. Name an interspecific hybrid in coffee
6

10. List out the features of Chandragiri coffee

Lecture.32
salient breeding achievements in tea
Tea: Camellia sinensis Family: Camelliaceae

(Theaceae)
The genus comprises about 45 species of evergreen shrubs and trees in tropical
and subtropical Asia. Botanist distinguished 3 distinct tea- producing taxa which were
referred as jats.
China type: (Camellia sinensis): China type grows as a shrub 1-3m high with erect
branches. Two morphological forms are identified in this type, viz. macrophylla with
broad and long leaves and parviflora with small narrow leaves. Plants are resistant to cold
and adverse conditions but low yielding.
Assam type (Camellia assamica): Assam type is a small tree growing up to 10-15 m
adapted to tropical conditions. Two types are recognized, viz., Assam type with light
green leaves giving higher yields of better quality tea and Manipuri type with dark green
leaves, drought resistant but with poor yields and quality.
Cambodean hybrid type (Camellia assamica ssp lasiocalyx): The cambod type is
conical in appearance reaching a height of 6-10m. Leaves semi erect vary in size between
China and Assam types. In most species particularly the commercial jats, diploid
chromosome number is 2n = 30.
Research Stations Board working on tea cultivation and in India

1. UPASI = United Planters Association of Southern India, UPASI Tea Research
Institute, Nirar Dam B.P.O, Valparai – 642 127, Dist: Coimbatore, TN.
2. TES - Tea Experiment Satation, Tocklai, Jorhat, Assam

Crop improvement
From the very early days of tea cultivation in India, seeds were used for planting
and it remained so far over 120 years.
1949: The use of vegetatively propagated plants was started in 1949 after the release of
clones by Tocklai Experimental Station.
Tea being a highly cross-pollinated crop, the seedling populations is highly
heterogeneous and comprises a large number of genetically distinctive genotypes which
can be grown in a range of agro climatic conditions. The genetic and phenotypic
variability of seedlings is high.
Objectives of crop improvement in tea

The final aim of tea breeding programme is to develop a high yielding tea of
acceptable quality. Yielding capacity is based on the yield per unit area of bush surface
which is dependent upon number of plucking points and the size of shoots. Hence the
following characters are important in selection programmes and for developing superior
clones of tea
1) Vigour of the bush: Select bushes which come into plucking quickly and give
continuously high yields.
2) Adaptability: Adaptability to local environment including drought resistance for dry
areas and frost resistance were required.
3) Resistance to pests and disease
4) Hairiness of terminal bud: It denotes high polyphenol content.
5) Stature: Spreading habit and tight plucking tables of bushes with ample leaves below
the plucking table
6) Minimal tendency to produce dormant buds (Bhanjhi buds) and without tendency to
flower.
7) Evenness of flush
8) Shoot and leaf features:Large heavy shoots with long internodes and without
markedly erect leaves . (Because such leaves are more difficult to pick)

9) Leaf flexibility: Select bushes producing flexible leaves which are easier to roll and
ferment easily and have good colour in the finished product giving an infusion of
appropriate colour, aroma and astringency.
10) Suitability for vegetative propagation: Select bushes which have capacity to root
easily from cuttings.
New cultivars are selected from the existing seedling populations or by

hybridization, polyploidy, mutation or genetic engineering. The genetic base of our tea
plant population should be broad-based and, therefore, a policy of clone-seed-clone-seed
cycle is preferred.
.orth India: The Tocklai Experimental Station has so far released 29 TV series clones,
over 130 TRA/garden series clones, 100 industry clones and 9 Tocklai biblical seed
stocks.
South India: For use in south India, the UPASI Tea Research Foundation Valpari, has
released 28 clones, about a dozen estate selections and 5 biclonal seed stocks.
The UPASI TRF has also developed 7 nursery graft combinations using high-
yielding clones as scions and drought-hardy clones as rootstocks.
Clonal selection
Exploitation of heterogenity in seedling population, arising out of cross
pollination, through clonal selection has played a vital role in tea improvement
programme.
Selection of elite mother bushes is an important step in the development of its
clones. (Mother bushes are selected based on visual assessment of characters like large
pluck size and higher unit weight, higher density of plucking points, semi-orthotropic
branching, and healthy and robust branching. Quality of made tea such as light green
leaves and pubescence of leaves and branches are also looked into. The yield potential of
mother bushes is calculated based on bush yield/unit area, out of field yield / unit area.
Yield over two pruning cycles are considered and yield potential of more than one is
considered high yielding. Subsequent processes in the development of clones involve the

assessment of rooting performance in the nursery, establishment in the field and survival
in succeeding drought period, yielding ability, quality of tea and tolerance to biotic and
abiotic stresses. Then select the best performing clones. These are then tested in different
tea-growing areas. Based on comprehensive assessment, clones are released for
commercial planting. The whole process from time of selection of mother bushes to
release of clones for commercial cultivation takes about 10-12 years. The long time
required for release of a clone is the limitation and methods for early yield prediction of
clones are necessary. However, clonal selection has resulted in the development of
several superior clones for commercial use in different tea growing regions. Twenty-eight
clones have been developed by United Planters Association of South India.
Development of Seed Stock: Use of monoclones or few clones, is 'hazardous due

to narrow genetic base and susceptibility to pests and diseases. Seed stocks are hence
developed to widen the genetic base. (For development of seed stocks, elite clones are
selected and planted in a specific statistical design in an isolated area, natural cross-
pollination is allowed and seeds are collected. Seeds obtained from crosses involving
more than 2 clones are referred to as polyclonal seeds, while that resulting from 2 clones
are called biclonal seeds. In view of the comparatively greater phenotypic uniformity in
progeny, biclonal seeds are preferred to polyclonal seeds. Now clonal selection is done in
biclonal progenies.
Interspecific Hybridization: In general, progeny of interspecific and wide crosses is

usually vigorous but lacks quality and morphological uniformity. A highly productive
clone, TV 24, has been developed by producing F; hybrid between C. irrawadiensis x C.
assamica, and crossing this with Assam-China hybrid (TV 2).
Induced polyploids in tea are vigorous and show resistance to environmental

stresses. They are not grown commercially owing to poor quality.

Clones developed by United Planters’ Association of South India (UPASI)

Clone .umber Character
UPASI (Evergreen) 1 Hardy
UPASI (Jayaram) 2 Hardy, high yielding
UPASI (Sundaram) 3 High-yield
UPASI (Brook 6 Hardy
lands)
UPASI (Golconda) 8 High-yielding
UPASI (Athrey) 9 High-yielding
UPASI (Pandian) 10 Hardy, suited for windy areas
UPASI (Singara) 14 High quality
UPASI (Spring 15 High quality suited for windy areas
field)
UPASI (Swarna) 17 High-yielding
UPASI 24 Hardy
UPASI 25 High-yielding
UPASI 26 Hardy
UPASI 27 High-yielding
UPASI (UPASI 10 x 28 Biclonal, 6,120kg made tea/ha, good
TRI 2025) strength
References
2. Chadha KL, Ravindran PN & Sahijram L. 2000. Biotechnology inHorticultural

and Plantation Crops. Malhotra Publ. House.


1. What are the three distinct taxa of tea?
2. List out the crop improvement objectives of tea
3. What is clonal selection in tea?
4. Explain the development of seed stock in tea
5. Give an account of interspecific hybrization in tea
6. Expand UPASI &TES and mention its location
7. What are the clones developed by UPASI?
8. Differentiate China tea and Assam tea
9. What is the Cambodia tea?

Lecture.33
salient breeding achievements in cocoa
Cocoa: Theobroma cacao Family: Sterculiaceae (Malvaceae)
Theobroma is the name given by Linnaeus meaning “Food of the Gods” (Greek
name Theos = Gods and Broma = Food) to the chocolate tree cocoa. Theobroma bicolor
and grandiflorum are other better known species. T. bicolor is typical with the
inflorescence appearing in the axils of new leaves and the branches bent down as the
pods reach maturity. Seeds of Theobroma bicolor are used as adulterant. Theobroma
cacao is a diploid with 2n = 20. Theobroma cacao ssp.cacao includes Criolla populations
of Central and South America and Theobroma cacao ssp. sphaerocarpum which includes
other populations like Forastero and Trinitario.
Classification
The most accepted classification divides cultivated and wild cocoa into 3 groups,
based on Venezuelan terminology namely Criollo, Forastero and Trinitario.
Criollo: Pods yellow or red when ripe, usually deeply furrowed, often markedly
warty, usually conspicuously pointed, pod wall thin in section so that pod compresses
under hand pressure; seeds large, plumpy and almost round in cross-section; cotyledons
white or pale-violet. Beans ferment quickly; comparatively low yield. It produces the best
quality cocoa; but only small quantities are available in the world market. Criollos
typically lack vigour and jorquette. They are reported to be extremely susceptible to bark
canker, witche’s broom and cocoa swollen shoot virus. Two types are distinguished in
1
criollo. Central American criollo, the unripe pod is green in colour and turns to yellow
while ripening; Venezuelan criollos, this cultivar shows greater degrees of variation from
tree-to-tree in colour, size and shape of pods. The unripe pod is usually red in colour.
Forastero: This is a large group which consists of cultivated, semi-wild and wild
populations. Of this, Amelonado population is the most extensively grown. Unripe pods
are whitish or green and turn yellow on ripening, usually inconspicuously ridged and
furrowed, surface often smooth, ends rounded or very bluntly pointed, pod walls
relatively thick and often with a woody layer, difficult to cut, seeds flattened, fresh
cotyledons deeply pigmented and dark violet cross-section; usually giving an astringent
product. These are hardier, more vigorous and higher yielding than criollo types.
Trinitario: These are hybrid populations result from natural crosses between
criollo and forastero types. They are highly heterogeneous showing wide range of
morphological and physiological characters. Colour of unripe pod may be whitish, green,
red, variable in shape and wall thickness, surface ranging from smooth to warty; beans
plump to flat; pigmentation of cotyledons white to nearly black. They are hardier and
more productive than criollo, the best clones combine the vigour of Amazonian with
much of quality of criollo, while other clones are very inferior.
2
Germplasm Collection
Research Stations working on cocoa in India:
1) CPCRI Regional Station, Vittal, South Kanara, Karnataka
2) KAU Vellanikkara, Thrissur
In a little more than 2 century, commercial cultivation of cocoa has extended from
its centre of origin in South America to West Africa, the Far East and Oceania. It has
become an important crop throughout the humid tropics. However, material for
commercial plantings has been derived from a very narrow genetic base leading to low
productivity in cocoa. Realizing the need to improve the genetic diversity, scientific
expeditions were conducted to collect wild cocoa from the natural habitats. The materials
collected in these expeditions are now maintained in national and international
germplasm collections in Central and South America and in the Caribbeans. Collections
at Centro Agronomico Tropical de Investigacion & En-senanza (CATIE), Costa Rica
International Cocoa Gene Bank (ICG), Trinidad and CEPLAC, Brazil have been
designated as primary collections and the germplasm is freely available to breeders.
Transfer of germplasm from International Germ-plasm Centres to user countries is done
through intermediate quarantine, of 2 years, with the facilities at Reading University, UK
and at CIRAD, Montpellier, France. In order to undertake long-term breeding activities,
the International Group for the Genetic Improvement of Cocoa (INGENIC) was created
in 1993.
The important parent materials for cocoa germplasm are:
• ICS selections from Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture in Trinidad
• Upper Amazon parents like IMC, NA, PA and SCA
• Amelonado which originated in West Africa
In India, cocoa germplasm collections are conserved with further exploration at
CPCRI Regional Station, Vittal (291 accessions) and College of Horticulture, Kerala
Agricultural University, Vellanikkara (500 accessions).These collections were from
Mslsysia, Ghana, Nigeria, Amazon, Trinidad, Brazil, Ecuador, UK, Mexico, Jamaica
clones and few local collections from Wynad, Kerala and Shiradi ghats, Karnataka.
3
Presently, germplasm accessions are conserved in field either in the form of

seedlings or as clones. The standardized clonal multiplications at various centres have
paved the way for multiplication and maintenance of accessions with greater degree of
true breeding values.
Crop Improvement
The cocoa germplasm has been utilized for crop improvement, in some ways. They are:
• Evaluation and selection of superior clones which are adapted to the locality with
desired traits like higher bean yield and resistance/ tolerance to biotic and abiotic
stresses, testing their performance in comparative yield trials and large-scale
production of clonal materials from elite clones.
• Production of first-generation hybrids of self-incompatible high-yielders,
assessment of their performance and selection of superior hybrids. The important-
biotic factors considered are resistance to black pod disease and vascular streak die-
back and drought tolerance among abiotic stresses.
Selection criteria in cocoa

• Trees with medium canopy under intercropping system
• Earliness in bearing
• Vigor and yielding efficiency
• Compatibility reaction
• Trees bearing lot of fruits with 70 – 100 pods/tree/year
• Medium to large pods of not less than 350g weight, smooth or shallow furrows on
the surface without prominent constriction at the neck
• Pod value (Number of pods required to produce 1 kg beans) to be not more than 12
• Husk thickness of pods to be more than 1cm
• Number of beans per pod should be more than 35
• Bean weight should be more than 1gram
• Dry bean yield should be more than 1kg/tree/year
• Shelling percentage- 10 -15%
4
• Fat content > 50%

• Resistance breeding (India) – Black pod disease (Phytophthora), Vascular Streak
Die back, Ceratocystis wilt, tea mosquito bug and drought.
Varieties
Several high-yielding varieties/hybrids have been released from India, Indonesia,
Trinidad and Costa Rica.
India
Five varieties were released from Cadbury-Cocoa Research Project, Kerala
Agricultural University, Thrissur, Kerala, through single plant selection from local
populations and exotic collections. All the clones are tolerant to vascular streak die-back.
CCRP I: Pods are medium-sized, green which changes to yellow on ripening, constricted
at the base, blunt beak and moderately deep ridges and furrows. The trees are self-
incompatible. Mature pods weigh 385 g, with 46 beans and 0.8 g oven-dry bean weight.
On an average, a tree yields 56 pods /year, with an yield potential of 72 pods.
CCRP II: It is a single plant selection from local population. It has spherical pods with
obtuse apex. No ridges and furrows in the pods and yields 54 pods /tree /year.
CCRP III: It is a selection from open pollinated seedling of T76/1224/1201 (Amazon). It

has elliptic pods with moderate ridges and furrows. It yields 68 pods per tree with 42
beans /pod.
CCRP IV: Pods large, purple tinged, turning yellow on ripening, beaked with acute tip,
basal constriction shallow or absent, pericarp deeply rugose with deep ridges and
furrows. The trees are self -incompatible. Mature pods weigh 402 g with 45 beans and 1.1
g oven-dry bean weight. On an average, a tree yields 66 pods/ year with a yield potential
of 93 pods.
5
CCRP V: Pods large, elliptical, green when immature turn yellow on ripening,
moderately deep ridges and furrows, apex acute. Trees are self-incompatible. Mature
pods weigh 425 g with 45 beans and 0.8 g oven-dry bean weight. Average yield is 38
pods/tree/year with a yield potential of 55 pods.
CCRP VI: Pods very big, green turning to yellow on ripening, thick rind, elliptical
without basal constriction, apex obtuse, pod surface rugose with shallow ridges and
furrows. Trees are self-incompatible. Mature pods weigh 895 g with 48 beans and 1.9 g
oven-dry bean weight. Average yield is 50 pods/tree/year with an yield potential of 180
pods.
CCRP VII: Pods large, elongated, green, turning to yellow on ripening, beaked with
acute apex, slight basal constriction, pod surface rugose, moderately deep ridges arid
furrows. The trees are self-incompatible. Mature pods weigh 526 g with 47 beans and 0.9
g oven-dry bean weight. Average yield 78 pods/tree with an yield potential of 95 pods.
CCRP 8: Hybrid between CCRP 1 x CCRP 7. Trees are self-incompatible. Pods green,
medium sized, turning yellow on ripening, apex attenuate, base intermediate, rugosity
intermediate. Mature pods weigh 389 g with 49 beans and 0.88 g oven dry bean weight.
Average yield 90 pods/tree giving 11.40 kg wet beans.
CCRP 9: Hybrid between CCRP 1 x CCRP 4. Trees are self incompatible. Pods green,
medium sized, turning yellow on ripening, apex attenuate, base strong, rugosity
Average yield 106 pods/tree giving 8.97 kg wet beans.
CCRP 10: Hybrid between CCRP 3x GVI 68. Trees are self incompatible. Pods green,
medium sized turning yellow on ripening, apex attenuate, base intermediate, rugosity
Average yield is 80 pods/tree giving 8.15 kg wet beans
6
Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Regional Station, Vittal (Karnataka)

Drought tolerant accessions NC 23, NC 29, NC 31, NC 39 and NC 42 have been
identified
Cocoa Varieties
Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Regional Station, Vittal (Karnataka);
Vittal Cocoa Hybrid (VTLCH) 4
Specialty: Early, heavy bearer, suited to

water limited condition.
Dry bean yield: 1.245 kg/ tree/ year
Yield per ha: 847 kg
VTLCH 3 Vittal Cocoa Hybrid 3

Specialty: Early bearer, high yielder, suited
to water scarcity conditions.
Dry bean yield:1.478 kg/ tree/ year
7

Specialty: Early bearer, high yielder, suited
to water scarcity conditions.
Dry bean yield:1.478 kg/ tree/ year
VTLCH 2 : Vittal Cocoa Hybrid 2

Specialty: Early, heavy bearer, medium
canopy, black pod disease tolerant
Dry bean yield: 1.145 kg/ tree/ year
Yield per ha : 800 kg

Specialty : Vigorous, early and heavy
bearer. Dry bean yield : 1.48 kg/ tree/ year
VTLCC 1 Vittal Cocoa Clone 1

Specialty : Early, heavy bearer, self & cross compatible
Dry bean yield : 1.33 kg/ tree/ year
8
Indonesia
DR-1, DR-2, DR-21 and DR-35 are resistant to cocoa moth.
Trinidad
ICS-l, ICS-45 and ICS-92 are high yielding selections, showing varying degrees of
tolerance to 'witches broom' .Hybrids; ICS-1 x SCA-6; (ICS-1 x SCA-6) x SCA-12; ICS-
6 x SCA-6, (ICS-6 x SCA-6) x SCA-12 and TSH-999 are high-yielding hybrids released
from the Tropical Research Station, Trinidad.
References

4. Balasimha,D. 2002. Cocoa. 175 pp. CPCRI, Kasaragod.
5. Balasimha,D.and Rajagopal,V.2004. Arecanut. 306 pp. CPCRI, Kasaragod

1. What do mean by Theobroma?
2. What are the three major classification of cocoa?
3. Compare and contrast the Criollo and Forestero type of cocoa
4. What is Trinitario cocoa?
5. List out the Research centres working on cocoa
6. What are the major breeding objectives of cocoa?
7. List out the varieties developed by KAU
8. Name the varieties developed by CPCRI
9. Cocoa research work is mainly concentrated in the ------------- centre of CPCRI
10. What the exotic varieties developed in cocoa?
11. Distinguish between Criollo, forastero and Trinitario
9
Lecture.34
salient breeding achievements in kokam & betelvine
Kokam: Garcinia indica Family: Clausiaceae (syn : Guttiferea)

Kokam is dioecious, but seems to be highly variable in sex forms.
Origin of kokum trees: &ative to evergreen forests of western mountain range
Sex types: The trees could be designated into the following types on the basis of
preponderance of particular type of flowers and the bearing tendency of individual tree.
Kokum Flower Kokum
Tree type -1 – Staminate or male tree

The flowers have mostly long pedicels, mass of stamens crowded on receptacle
and sometimes rudimentary pistil with pointed apex. They are incapable of producing any
fruit and serve as pollinators only.
Tree type- II- Hermaphrodite or bisexual

Young fruits produced by the tree are generally irregular in shape containing 0 to
6 underdeveloped seeds. Yield per tree may vary from 1 to 3 kg of fruits.
Tree type III- Pistillate or female

Flower is identified by short pedicel, well developed pistil and two or four tufts of
staminodes below. Fruits are round to globose, dark red when ripe and contain 1 to 7 well
developed seeds. Adult tree bears heavy crop. In a population of 62 trees observed 37 per
cent turned out to be male, 8 per cent bisexual and 55 per cent female.
1

Constraints and suggestions for Kokum Development in India

1. Scattered production: No organized production of kokum at present. Most
homesteads have a few trees from which fruits are collected from a wider area and
it adds to the cost of production.
2. Federations/ Cooperative groups, Processing and marketing federations of
collectors and growers should be formed. Collective farming system should be
adopted.
3. Short harvesting period: Fruit harvest in kokum is only for about six weeks in a
year, which is a short period for processing. During the first half of the summer
the demand of kokum has to be met out of the production of the previous year and
then supplying the production of current year for the second half.
4. Spoilage of the produce: Kokum starts fruiting from March and it extends until
the first week of June. If it rains during the fruiting season the fruits will be
spoiled. Premonsoon showers will spoil part of kokum produce.
5. Regional and seasonal demand: Though kokum drink is superior to many
synthetic soft drinks in the market, its use is not known through out India. It is
suggested to popularize kokum drink as a health drink than a soft drink.
Varieties
At KKV, Dapoli, fourteen kokum types with early maturity, bigger sized fruits
and high yield have been identified.
Konkan Amrit: Released from KKV Dapoli (Dr. B.S. Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth.).
Konkan Amrit variety fruits are bigger in size weighing about 30 g.
Yellow kokum: A unique variety of kokum in Uttara Kannada dist. It is locally called as
bili murugalu though the colour is yellow. It is believed to posses more medicinal
properties. Skin will turn yellow at the time of ripening.

Kokum is one of the important non timber forest produces (NTFPs) collected from the
western ghats of Karnataka.
Variety Konkan Amritha was developed by clonal selection. This variety is considerably
early having short harvesting period (78days) with a few pluckings. The yield is high
(138.28kg) with medium sized fruits (34.45g) having rind of 17.55g. Filled seeds were
3.55 per fruit. This variety is a pure female.
Betel vine
Betel vine: Piper betle Family: Piperaceae
Betel vine is a perennial, dioecious evergreen creeper. There are about 100
number of cultivars recognized by the growers and traders in India. These are classified
based on leaf size, shape, texture, quality and taste. The morphological differences in
terms of length: breadth ratio due to sexual dimorphism do exist in betelvine. Male plants
have leaves which are narrowly ovate with 1.84 length: breadth ratio and female plants
have cordate or ovate leaves with 1.26 length: breadth ratio. Leaves of the female plants
are mostly pungent and male plants are non pungent.
Origin: Malaysia (Central and Eastern Malaysia). It was introduced to India in pre
historic times. It is believed to have come originally from Java.
Important cultivars of different betelvine growing countries

Country Cultivars
India Bangla, Meetha, Sanchi, Karpoori, Kashi, Tellaku, Mahai,
Kariyale, Deshawari, Desi Bangla, Kallipatti, Godi Bangla, Naua
Bangla, Pachakodi, Vellaikodi, Mahoba Bangla, Ghanagatte,
Ambadi,Bangla, Simurali Bhavana, Ramtek Bangla, Kali Bangla,
SB -35
Sri Lanka Ratadalu, Gelathoda, Kahaneru, Nagawalli
Malaysia Sireh China, Sireh Malaya, Sireh Hudang
Indonesia Sireh Hitam, Sireh Buah, Sireh Balawi

In India two high yielding cultivars have been developed in recent years of which
SGM-1 is for cultivation in southern States. DPB-6 was released by Maharashtra state
and Bidhan pan was released by West Bengal and Orissa. This cultivar was also
recommended for cultivation in North Eastern States under protected cultivation.
Characteristics of commonly traded and improved cultivars are as follows
Bangla: It is one of the widely traded types which encompass a large number of land
races of betelvine. It grows vigorously and are generally very pungent. Leaves are having
7-9 prominent secondary veins, petioles are 8-10cm in length and lamina are 8.5-15.5 x
11-19cm, dark green in colour with yellowish tinge. Leaves are cordate to roundish
having widest part of the lamina below the middle point, entire and glabrous. Leaves are
also fibrous with nearly having 82% eugenol.
Meetha: Grown mostly in three districts of West Bengal namely, East Midnapore, South
24-Parganas and Howrah. Leaves are comparatively thinner than Bangla, waxy, cordate
to broadly ovate, dark green in colour with characteristic pale yellowish specks and
having short apex but pointed. The characteristic aroma in leaves is due to presence of the
anethole as one of the constituents.
Sanchi: Leaves are medium to large in size, narrow and ovate with long base, lobes less
prominent than Bangla. Leaf margin is entire. Leaves are dark green and fibrous. Leaves
are pungent.
Kapoori: It is grown mostly in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Kerala and
Karnataka. Vines are moderately vigorous, highly branched and leaves are narrow to
ovate with thin lamina and soft in texture. The aroma is due to presence of high
percentage (20%) of terpenyl acetate.

Deshawari: It produces large cordate leaves with short, pointed, acuminate and
characteristically curved apex. It has mild sweet taste which is due to low anethole
content.
Khasi: This cultivar is somewhat wild in character and mainly grown in North Eastern
hilly region. Leaf colour is dark to dull green.
SGM 1: It is a clonal selection from a Palghat type. It is adaptable to all betel vine-
growing areas of Tamil Nadu. It produces a higher leaf yield of 109 lakh leaves per
hectare in a crop duration of 2 to 2½ years. The vines are dwarf statured with vigorous
bushy growth having thick hardy stem with short internodes and multilateral. Leaves are
attractive yellowish green colour with desirable pungency. It is the first betel vine variety
released by TNAU from Southern India.
SGM
SGM (BV) 2: This is a pureline selection from Dindigul local. It possesses multilateral
vines (17-20/vine) with long petioles and attractive dark green leaves. The leaves are
moderately pungent with good chewing quality. It is a high yielder with good market
appeal. The duration of the crop is 2-2½ years. The suitable season for cultivation was
January – March and June – August for Agathi and March – May and August – October
for betelvine. The crop is moderately resistant to phytopthora wilt, blight and nematodes.
It yields about 49 lakh leaves / ha / year which is 25.4% increase over SGM 1, 33.8%
increase over Karpoori and 62.0% increase over vellaikodi. It can be cultivated all over
Tamil Nadu and is suitable for open trench cultivation.

Bidan Pan: It is a selection from the local Bangla cultivar. The characteristic feature of
the plant is short internode length. The productivity goes high due to short internodal
length.
DBP-6: It is a selection from a local Karpoori collection from Maharashtra. The cultivar
has given about 10-18 percent increase in productivity over the cultivars of Maharashtra.
Leaf characters are similar to Karpoori.
Cultivated types including wild and semi wild types should be extensively
collected and should be grown under uniform conditions and various traits like yield,
quality, disease and pest resistance should be evaluated in wild and semi wild types
which may be valuable sources for resistance genes.
Procedure for selection in the several progenies includes a) cultivars can be inbred
to produce seeds and selection is to be done among the progenies varied there from. b)
Inter breeding of cultivars and selection in resulting progenies. Induction of new
variations can be achieved through mutation; somoclonal variations through tissue culture
of cultivars; haploid can be intercrossed to develop heterotic hybrids. Betelvine can be
crossed with other sister species (inter specific hybridization) ad the resulting F1 and F2
there from can be studied for desirable variants.
References
2. T.K. Bose, V.A. Parthasarathy and P.K. chattopadhyay. 2006 Plantation Crops
Vol.2 Pub: Partha Sankar Basu, NayaUdyog, 206, Bidhan Sarani, Kolkata 700 006,
India

1. What is the botanical name and family of kokam?

2. What are the sex types in Garcinia?
3. Mention the constraints for kokam development in India
4. What are the varieties developed in kokam?
5. What is the botanical name and family of betelvine?
6. the origin of betelvine is ----------
7. List out the cultivars of different betelvine growing areas
8. Describe the features of SGM1 & 2
9. Narrate the procedure for selection of progenies in betel vine
10. What is Bidan pan?

Exercise.1
Study of Floral Biology and Anthesis Time in Mango and Cashew
CLASS : Dicotyledonae
SUBCLASS : Polypetalae
SERIES : Disciflorae
ORDER : Sapacadales
FAMILY : Anacardiaceae
GE*US : Mangifera
SPECIES : Indica
BOTA*ICAL *AME: Mangifera indica
2n = 40
The origin of mango is Indo – Burma region.
Mango is the most popular fruit for million of people. It is considered as the
choicest of all fruits. Its cultivation started before four thousand years. Other species of
Mango are,
1. Mangifera caseia
2. Mangifera foetida
3. Mangifera odorata
4. Mangifera zeylanica
5. Mangifera similis
6. Mangifera sylvatica
1
These species are cultivated in different places but the fruits are of inferior quality.
Habit: This is an erect evergreen tree growing 10 to 40 m height with dense dome shaped
canopy.
Root: Long tap root, goes up to 6m depth and dense surface mass of feeding root. It is
having pronounced trunk with greyish brown bark is thick or black in colour.
Leaves: Simple leaves, alternate, exstipulate, young leaves usually reddish in colour,
latter turn dark shiny green and remain on the tree for a year or more. Petiole is 1 to 10
cm, flattened on the upper surface, leaves are narrowly elliptic or lanceolate, mid rib
prominent, having up to 30 pair of lateral veins stomata on both the surface but greater
number on the low surface.
Inflorescence: Inflorescence is widely branched, terminal panicle 10-60 cm in length

with 1000-6000 flowers, polygamous flowers, with male and hermaphrodite flowers in
the same flower, out of which 0.74-69.8% perfect flower or hermaphrodite flower. The
branches are usually pubescent.
Flowers: They are 5 to 8mm in diameter, sub-sessile sweet scented.
2
Calyx: The sepals usually 5 rarely (4-7) free, concave in shape, yellowish green.
Corolla: The petals usually 5 rarely (4 to 7) twice as long as calyx green colour with 3 to
5 dark yellow ridges on the inner surface. Petals later becoming pink in colour and fleshy
annular, 5 lobed disk in between corolla and androecium.
Male Flowers: The stamens usually 5, rarely 3 to 7 inserted on the outer margin of the
disk of which 1 or 2 are occasially fertile and others staminodes. Stamens usually pink in
colour turning purple on anthesis. The pistil is abortive in male flower. Hermaphrodite
flower, the stamens are as described above and sessile one celled ovary which is set on
disc and lateral style and small simple stigma approximately same length of that fertile
stamen.
Fruits: Fleshy drupe contains a stony endocarp and the size of the fruit is 2.5 to 3.0 cm
long, shaped round to ovoid to oblong colour varying with green, yellow and red. A small
projection developing laterally at the distal end of the fruit is known as beak and the sinus
present above the beak. The basal end may be depressed intermediately. The endocarp is
fairly thick, edible mesocarp, varying thickness.
Seed: The seed is inside the stony endocarp, two fleshy cotyledons, mono embryonic
with one zygotic embryo, others are poly embryonic with two to twelve embryos in
which apomictic embryos are produced from epidermal cell of nucleus to which zygotic
embryo may or may not be supported.
Pollination and fruits: flowering usually seen in the month of November to December
in India. The panicles located in the inner position of the tree have higher percentage of
perfect flowers than the panicles located outside.
Flowers open early in the morning its maximum anthesis from 8-12 a.m. The
stigma receptivity at the time of flower opening. The nectar secreted by the disc. Mode of
pollination by flies, nearly 65 – 85% flowers remain unpollinated and only 0.1-1% reach
the harvesting stage. Fruit drop occur at all stages. After fertilization, maturity attains in 2
to 5 months.
3
CASHEW
BOTA*ICAL *AME: Anacardium ccidentale
FAMILY: Anacardiaceae
Chromosome *o: 2n= 42
Inflorescence
Terminal panicle is either conical or pyramidal in shape. The time from visual
emergence of inflorescence to opening of first flower takes about 5- 6 weeks. An
inflorescence contains on an average 120-1,100 flowers.
Flowers
The flowers are scented, white in colour at first but soon turn pink after a few
days. Flowers have pubescent bract. They are andromonoecious (polygamous) with male
and hermaphrodite flowers in same inflorescence. Each flower has 5 sepals and petals
each. In male flower, there are 10 stamens of which 9 are short and one long stamen with
red anther projecting above the corolla. The ovary is rudimentary. In hermaphrodite
flowers, 9 stamens are short as in male flower and the long stamens projects just above
the corolla but remains below the stigma. Ovary is one locular with single ovule; style
simple and exserted. The flowering starts from December and extends to April.
Pollination
Peak anthesis is between 9 am and 11 am, the stigma is receptive as soon as the
flowers open and remains receptive for 48 hours from anthesis. The anther dehiscence
takes place 1-5 hours after anthesis. Pollination takes place through bees which transfer
the sticky pollen to stigma.
Fruit set
Cashew produces 10% of perfect flowers of which 85% are fertilized and only 4-
6% are carried to final maturity, the rest being shed at various stages. It takes about 60
days from fruit set to maturity.
4
Exercise.2
Study of floral biology and different cultivars of banana and their genome
Class : Monocotyledon
Subclass : Monochamydae
Series : Epigynae
Order : Zingiberales
Family : Musaceae
Genus : Musa
Species : M.acuminata or
M.balbisiana
Botanical *ame : Musa sp.
2n = 22
It is the second important fruit crop in India. It is a tropical fruit. The edible
banana is originated from south East Asia. India is believed to the one of the centres of
banana
1. Musa
2. Ensete
Under Musa there are five classes viz., Eumusa, Rhodochlamys, Australimusa,
Callimusa and Inserte sedis
Eumusa is the largest section
M. acuminata
M. balbisiana
5
The basic chromosome number is n=11 and the edible bananas may have 22, 33,
44 chromosomes and are respectively referred to as diploid, triploid or tetraploid.
All the cultivated crops are inter-specific crosses of these two species.
Based on the ploidy level, bananas are classified as diploid, triploid and
tetraploids. Among these ploidy levels, based on the scoring for predominance of
acuminata and balbisiana characters they are classified as AA, AB, AAA, AAB, ABB,
AAAA, AAAB, AABB and ABBB
Description of Important Cultivars

Brief descriptions of important banana cultivars that are being cultivated
commercially.
Dwarf Cavendish (AAA)
(Syn: ‘Basrai Dwarf’, ‘Kullan’, ‘Kabuli’, Vamanakeli’, ‘Pachavazhai’,

‘Maurititus’, ‘Moris’, ‘Bhusavai’, ‘Kuzhi Vazhai’, ‘Kulla Vazhai’, ‘Kutta Vazhai’ and
‘Nilavazhai’)
The stature is dwarf but produces moderately bigger bunches weighing

approximately 18-20 kg producing 8-10 hands. The duration of this variety is 10-12
months.
Robusta (AAA)
(Syn: ‘Bombay Green’, ‘Harichal’ and ‘Pedda Pacha Arati’)
Robusta is semi-tall sport of ‘Dwarf Cavendish’. The fruits retain the full green
colour of the rind even when ripe. The bunch weight ranges from 20 to 25 kg under
conventional system and as high as 40-50 kg with hi-tech practices. The number of hands
may be 8-11 depending on cultural practices.
Red Banana (AAA)
(Syn: ‘Lalkela’, ‘Chenkadali’, ‘Sevvazhai’ and ‘Rathambala’)
6
This variety has a free suckering habit. The colour of the pseudostem, petiole,
midrib and fruit rind is purplish red. The fruit is of good size, slightly curved with a blunt
apex. The bunch weight is about 20-25 kg with more than 80 fruits borne on 6-7 hands. It
is a long duration variety and takes about 18 months from planting to harvest.
Poovan (AAB)
(Syn: ‘Mysore’, ‘Champa’, ‘Lal Valechi’, ‘Karpura Chakkarakeli’ and

‘Palayankodan’)
The fruits are small to medium in size, yellow skinned, firm fleshed with a sub-
acid taste. The pseudostem is tall, hard and grows vigorously. The variety is also suitable
for the ratooning system. The duration varies from 11 to 14 months. The average bunch
weight is about 14 kg. Each bunch may have 8-12 hands, each hand bearing 12-18 fingers
each. Individual fingers have prominent nipple.
Rasthali (AAB)
(Syn: ‘Silk’ ‘Mutheli’, ‘Malbhog’, ‘Martaman’, ‘Karkanduvazhai’, ‘Amruthapani’

and ‘Rasa Bale’, Poovan’)
The average bunch weight is about 12 kg; 60 to 80 fruits/bunch in five to seven

hands. The ripe fruits drop off easily from pedicel; rind thin, the colour changes to yellow
with reddish spots upon ripening. The pulp is cream coloured, mealy with very sweet and
excellent flavour but often with ‘hard lumps’. Duration of the cultivar is 14 to 16 months.
It is highly susceptible to ‘Panama wilt’ disease.
Hill Banana (AAB)
(Syn: ‘Virupakshi’, ‘Malavazhai’, ‘Vellavazhai’ and ‘Sirumalai’)
The average bunch weight is 12 kg with about 80-90 fruits per bunch. Duration of
this variety is about 14 months. If cultivated in plains, hill bananas will lose their fruit
quality.
7
*endran (AAB)
(Syn: ‘Ethankai’ and ‘Plantain’)
The fruits are relatively longer and thicker than most other bananas. The bunch is
not compact and has 4-6 hands; 8-10 fingers per hand. Each bunch weighs 12 to 15 kg.
fruit with 3 prominent ridges strongly held. The duration of this variety is about 11-12
months.
Karpooravalli (ABB)
(Syn : ‘Karpura Vazhai’, ‘Raja Vazhai’ and ‘Kostha Bontha’)
Stem light green with purplish tinge, 3 m tall, leaves are large. Bunches are heavy
with 8-9 compact hands, each hand having 13-14 fingers. Tip of the finger is distinct.
Skin yellow with ashy coating, pulp cream coloured, crisp, sweet with a pleasant taste
and flavour.
*ey Poovan (AB)
(Syn: ‘Elakkibale’, ‘Safed Velchi’, ‘Sonery’, ‘Kadali’, ‘Rasakadali’ and ‘Deva Bale’)
The fruits are invariably small and the average bunch weight is about 12 kg with
about 150 fruits per bunch. The duration of this variety is about 13 months.
CO.1 (AAB)
It is a multiple hybrid synthesized and developed at the Horticultural College and

Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore and released during
1983.
Ladan X Musa balbisiana
(AAB) (BB) Clone Sawai
8
F1 (AB) X Kadali (AA)
CO.1 (AAB)
The fruits have flavour and taste similar to hill banana, at the same time the plants
can be grown in plains. The plants are medium tall (2.7 m). The bunch weighs on an
average 10.5 kg having 7 hands with a total number of 80-85 fruits. Each fruit weighs
about 150-160 g. TSS 22.6°brix. The crop duration is 14-15 months.
Sannachenkadali (AA)
The trees resemble that of red banana with purplish red colour in pseudostem,
petiole, and midrib and fruit rind. This variety is tolerant to leaf spot.
Monthan (ABB)
(Syn: ‘Bontha’, ‘Kanch Kela’, ‘Bankel’, ‘Pisang *anka’, ‘Batisa’ and ‘Bluggoe’)
This is an important commercial culinary banana in Tamil Nadu and in several

others states of India. The duration is 12 to 14 months. Bunch weighs around 18-22 kg
with about 60 fruits per bunch.
Floral Biology
Habit: It is a tall herb, growing to a height of 2-6 m, monocarpic, monocotyledons,

perennial
Underground stem: The real stem is called ‘corm’. The growth is called ‘sympodial’.
The corm has short internodes. Bananas are clumped in habit since the corm is covered in
closely packed leaf scars. The corm terminal growing point produces leaf in spiral
succession. In the axils of each leaf, a bud is present.
Aerial stem / pseudostem: The pseudostem made of number of leaf sheaths completely
enclosing the axis of the stem. The leaf sheaths are white in colour, after being exposed to
sunlight it becomes green in colour.
9
Leaves: Spirally arranged and consist of a sheath, petiole and leaf lamina or blade.
Sheaths are circular and tightly packed into non-woody pseudo stem. Petiole is rounded
below and channelled above. The shape of bunch blade is blunt at the tip and taper round
at the base. Venation is parallel.
Infloresence: The peduncle is thick, globular and pubescent. Each spike covered with a
boat shaped, coloured attractive bract arranged spirally, the bracts are deciduous.
Flowers: Flowers are placed in the axile of bract arranged biserially, commonly 12 to 20
in number. The basal flower is pistillate while terminal flowers are staminate. At the
lower end, they may form a bulbous male bud. The male bud is retained along with bract
in the inflorescence. The individual flowers are bracteate.
Perianth: Zygomorphic, composed of two structure and total six membrane and five
compound tepals and one free tepal. This is similar for pistillate and staminate flower. In
the cultivated banana the number of free tepal 3, vary from 1 to 2.
Pistillate flower: Large in size and have well developed ovary. The stamens are 5 in
number and reduced to staminodes. Ovary is inferior, trilocular, tricarpellary, two ovules
per locule in axile placentation. Some flowers have more than 1 ovary. It results in
Siamese banana. The style is thick and long. Stigma is club shaped and sticky.
Staminate flower: Stamens 5, long filament free anthers two lobed, linear and basifixed.
The sixth stamen is considered to be represented by free tepal of inner whorl called as
tetraplloid stamen. The ovary is not functional.
10
Anthesis and pollination: Cultivated banana is parthenocarpic and sets fruit without
pollination. The diploid bananas are cross pollinated. The flowers are dispersed by bats,
birds, bees, ants, wasp and other large insects. Male and female flowers open from 6.00
to 8.00 am.
11
Exercise.3
Study of different species of citrus and morphological description
SUBCLASS : Polypetalae
SERIES : disciflorae
ORDER : gereniales
GE*US : Citrus
FAMILY : Rutaceae
2n = 18
Most probably citrus has originated in the drier monsoon areas rather than the
tropical rain forests, because plants show dormancy and water storing hairs (pulp
vesicles) which help seed to develop under such conditions. Natural hybridization takes
place between cultivars and species without any difficulties, thereby resulting in wide
range of variations in the form of complex hybrids. Human intervention in selection is
based on edible juice, desirable flavour, juice storing vesicles etc.
Description of important species
Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Swing 2n = 18.
Lime is very distinct species, hybridizes easily with other citrus species, but is not
related closely to them. Plants are short trees (5m tall) much branched, irregular in
outline, heavily marked with short sharp spines. Leaves are simple, alternate, small (4-8 x
2-5 cm), ovate-elliptic to sometimes oblong ovate, margins crenulated, wing narrow.
Inflorescence short occurs axillary usually 1-7 flowered, sometimes 10 flowered. Flowers
are white, small flowering over long period, calyx cup shaped 4-6 lobed, petals white, 4-
5 (12 x 4mm), stamens 20-25, ovary 9-12 loculed, style distinct. Fruit is a berry, small,
greenish yellow, oval, ovoid or globose in shape about 3-6 cm in diameter, with distinct
12
apical papillae at calyx end, rind/skin or peel thin with numerous glands, adhering tightly
to very acid yellow green vesicles, which are juicy and fragrant. Seed, plump, small, oval,
ovoid cotyledons white, polyembryonic, are tenderer than other citrus speices.
Horticulturally limes are divided into acid and sweet limes. Apart from the
most commonly grown ‘Mexican’ or ‘West Indian’ or ‘ key’ ‘ lime’, Tahiti or Persian
lime (2n=3x=27), a triploid type and hybrid of lime and citron (C. medica) are also
important. This lime is hardier and is more adapted to subtropical conditions. The fruits
are globose, longer, high in acid, almost seedless, less fragrant than the common lime.
The sweet lime is a hybrid of lime sweet, lemon or sweet citron. It is used as a root stock.
Citrus aurantium L. (2n=18). Sour or Seville orange.
Plants are relatively tall (10 m), thorn small thin and slender. Leaves alternate,
simple, dark green, shiny, ovate to elliptic, large (10x7 cm) broadest in middle, round to
short pointed apex, margins crenulated, petiole 2-3 cm long, broadly winged. Flowers are
borne axillary, flower large, white, very fragrant (5-10% staminate), stamens 20-25,
ovary 10-12 loculed. Fruits usually bright orange-red, very aromatic, globose, rind/peel
thick, rough (surface bumpy), pulp very sour to bitter, core generally hollow, seeds borne
are many, polyembryonic.
Citrus limon (L.) Burf. (2n=18). Lemon
Lemon plants are small trees (3-6 m tall), thorns stiff, stout. Leaves medium
(10x6 cm), simple, alternate, light green, margin slightly serrated, petiole short, narrowly
winged with distinct articulation with petiole. Flowering occurs in leaf axils, flowers
solitary or in clusters 3-5 cm in diameter, produced in all seasons, calyx 4-5 lobed, petals
4-5, pink in bud, white above, and purplish below, stamens 20-40, style single, ovary 8-
10 loculed. Fruit oval oblong (5-10 cm long) with distinct nipple at stylar end, yellowish
green (light yellow) at ripening, rind thick, densely dotted with glands, adhering tightly to
sour tasty pale yellow pulp/vesicles, seed plump ovoid with greenish cotyledons,
polyembryonic. Lisbon, Eureka and Villafranka are the most common and widely grown
cultivars. Shows complete nucellar embryony, stock therefore is uniform.
13
Citrus medica L. (2n=18) Citron
Citron plants are shrub or small tree (3 m tall) wood somewhat soft, current
growth angular, later becoming circular purple tinged when young, and spine single,
stout. Leaves, alternate shiny ovate- lanceolate to elliptic ovate, medium large (8-20 x 3-9
cm), apex pointed or rounded, rounded at base, petiole short, almost wingless and not
articulated with lamina. Flowers occur axillary over an extended period in few flowered
racemes, flowers are large 3-4 cm across, hermaphrodite and staminate, large proportion
being staminate, sepal 5 lobed, petals 5, pink tinged outside, stamens 30-40, style single,
thick ovary usually large with 10-13 locules. Fruit ovoid to oblong-ovoid, large sized 10-
20 cm long, yellowish coloured, rind/ peel very thick, surface rough very bumpy,
segments small, pulp or vesicles greenish, sour in taste. Seeds small, white,
polyembryonic.
Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck. Sweet Orange 2n=18, triploid and tetraploid occur
Sweet orange plants are evergreen trees (6-12 m tall), crown usually rounded,
young twigs angular, often with stout spines (on young seedlings). Leaves are dark green
shiny, ovate-elliptic (5-15 x 2-8 cm), rounded at base, apex short pointed, margins
sometimes slightly serrated / crenate, petiole small medium (1-2.5cm), narrowly winged
articulated. Flowers axillary, borne singly or in few flowered recemes, 2-3 cm in
diameter, pentamerous, bisexual and fragrant, calyx 5 lobed, corolla usually whit,
stamens 20-25 style single slender with globose stigma, ovary with 10-14 locule. Fruit
sub globose 4-12 cm in diameter, peel / rind about half centimeter thick, adhering tightly
to juicy sub acidic vesicles, yellow to orange red in colour (often remains green in
tropics), central axis solid. Seed nil to many, obovoid, white inside and polyembryonic.
Seedling of sweet orange grows up right and are very spiny.
Citrus reticulata Blanco. Mandarin 2n=18
Mandarin plants are relatively small (2-8 m tall), spiny, twigs are slender. Leaves
small dark green, shining, green above and pale below, narrow at both apices, narrowly
or broadly lanceolate or elliptic with acute base and tip, margin crenate, petiole usually
narrowly winged. Flower occur singly or in small clusters in the leaf axils, flowers small
14
(1.5-2.5 cm diameter), white fragrant, pentamerous, calyx 5, corolla 5, white, stamens 20,
style single, ovary with 10-15 locule. Fruit is a depressed globose or sub globes berry, 5-8
cm in diameter, yellow or orange – red when ripe, rind thin, loose separating easily from
segments, which are sweet juicy, orange in colour. Seed small, pointed at one end,
embryo green, polyembryonic. In some countries mandarins and tangerine are used
indiscriminately; however mandarins are used for yellow fruited cultivars and tangerine
for deep orange types.
Citrus grandis (L.) Osbeck, Pummelo, Shaddock 2 n=18
Trees are medium tall (5-15 m), spreading and spiny low branching,
young twigs pubescent (many persists for year or more) spine prominent large and long
(5 cm). Leaves simple alternate, dark green shiny, large (5-20 x 2-12 cm), ovate to broad,
elliptic, base rounded to sub-cordate margin entire to slightly / shallowly crenate, apex
obtusely acute, sometimes may be slightly notched, under surface pubescent along midrib
and veins, petiole broadly winged (7cm broadest amongst all citrus spp.). Flowers are
borne axillary, solitary or in clusters of few flowers. Flower white fragrant large
measuring 3-7 cm in diameter, penetamerous, sepal 5 lobed, petal 5 cream coloured,
stamens 20-25, style one, ovary 11-16 loculed. Fruit very large (largest of all citrus spp.)
globose, subglobose or pyriform in shape, 10-30 cm in diameter, yellowish when ripe,
rind very thick densely dotted with glands, pulp vesicles also very large, pale yellow or
pink well filled with sweet juice (in inferior types vesicles tend to be dry). Seeds are large
yellowish and ridged, monoembryonic.
Citrus paradisi Macf. Grapefruit 2n=18
Grapefruit plants are large tree (10-15 m tall) spreading, evergreen tree round
topped, foliage dense, young twigs angular and sparsly pubescent Leaves, green
evergreen, smaller than pummelo and larger than sweet orange, pale green when young,
petioles broadly winged (less than pummelo) oblanceolate obovate (7-15 x 4-8 cm) often
crenulate. Flowering occurs axillary, solitary or in small clusters, about 4-5 cm across,
pentamerous, calyx 5 lobed corolla 5 white fragrant, stamens 20-25 style single, ovary
12-14 loculed. Fruits large, globose borne in clusters, 8-15 cm in diameter, greenish-
15
yellow coloured, rind thinner, vesicles small (compared to pummelo), adhering to rind.
Seed white, smooth, cotyledons white, polyembryonic.
Poncirus trifoliata (L.) Raf. Trifoliate Orange
Plants are small trees with upright growth, densely branched. Young growth
smooth angular, dark green thorny, old shoots circular. Thorns very stiff, stout, sharp,
11/2 -2 inches long flattened at base. Leaves trifoliate, deciduous, obovate, central leaflet
notched, margin crenate. Flower buds produced singly or in pairs in leaf axils covered by
scales and are formed in summer, in spring appear before leaves or on naked shoot.
Flowers, short pedicelled or nearly sessile
Anthesis and pollination
Flowering takes place mostly in spring. The lime, lemon, citron and acid group
flowers though the year. Mostly of the citrus cultivars self and cross pollinated. The
stigma and stamen matures at the same time. The stigma is receptive for 6 to 8 days.
Flowers are entomophilous and are visited by bees attracted by white corolla, strong
perfume, abundant nectar and sticky pollen. Thrips also visit the flower in great number.
16
Exercise.4
Study of floral biology of guava and sapota
Botanical *ame: Psidium guajava
Class : Dicotyledonae
Sub class : polypetalae
Serials : Calciflorae
Order : Myrtales
Family : Myrtaceae
Genus : Psidium
Species : Guajava
Origin – Tropical America or West indies
2n – 21, 22
The Three important spices:
1. P.cattelianum / strawberry guava: Sweet and aromatic flavour like strawberry

2. P. fredrichsthalianum / chinese guava: Provides resistance to Guava wilt.
3. P. guinense / Brazilian guava
Habit: - It is a small tree, spreading, trunk fairly thin, bark is scaly and often multi
coloured. The bark is bright and smooth. The erect branches arise from the base of the
branch and carries spreading lateral branches.
Leaves: - Small stock and are almost sessile, superimposed and green simple, oval shape
sharp shiny. The veins are markedly depressed on the upper surface. Nerve entire with
transparent edges. Flowers hermaphrodite, solitary, axillary, some time they also found
in two to three together in size. Rarely terminal pedicellate, bracteate calyx tube
17
completely encloses the flower bud. When the flower matures calyx burst open 4 to 6
irreguler lobe. Shortly pubescent and persistant.
Corolla: 4 o 5 petals, tree spread widely as the flower open, obovate in shape white in
colour.
Androecium: Stamens are numerous with long filament and short round anther.
Gynoecium: ovary inferior with four marked carpels ovules many in axile placentation,
the long style, extent beyond the stamen and has a long knob like stigma.
Fruit: Berry ovoid or globose, pear shape with persistent calyx at the stylar end within
the fruit small yellow seed are embedded in the white or red, pink flesh of mesocarp.
Seed: Seeds are small, reniform, Compressed, light yellow or yellowish brown.
Anthesis & pollination: Floral bud requires 38 to 42 days for full development. Time of
anthesis varies from 5 to 8 am. Anther starts dehiscing 15 to 30 min prior to anthesis.
Pollen grain of guava is generally triangular in the seedless cultivar. Pollen viability is 84
to 96%, stigma receptivity starts even two days before anthesis and last up to 4th day after
anthesis. It is a self pollinated crop.
SAPOTA
SUBCLASS : Gamopetalae
SERIES : Inferae
ORDER : Epinates
FAMILY : Sapotaceae
GENUS : Acharas
SPEICES : sapota
18
Botanical *ame : Manilkara sapota , Acharas sapota
2n = 26
Sapota is a delicious fruit tree. Its origin of growth is tropical America. It is grown
for dessert purpose in India. It is commercially exploited in South Mexico for its latex
production. The unripened fruit and bark contain milky white latex which solidifies on
exposure to air which form the base for making Chicklets. The latex contains 20 to 40%
of gum.
Habit: It is an evergreen tree, slow growing to a height of 20m. The milky latex is
produced throughout the plant part especially in the bark. Sapota cultivars are grouped
into three types based on the nature of the habit (i.e.) based on the branches and the
colour of foliage.
I. Trees with erect growing habit.
II.Branches with drooping habit
III.Trees with spreading habit
Leaves: The leaves are glossy, leathery, simple, alternate, petiolate and exstipulate,
elliptic to ovate entire and pinnately nerved.
Flowers: Flowers are small densely grouped in leaf axils, tomentose (small hair
structure), protogynous.
Calyx: Six sepals in two whorls, outer whorl 3 sepals are united at the base and the inner
3 sepals are free and light green in colour, ovate in shape, obtuse or rounded at the tip,
leather like.
Corolla: 6 petals, gamopetalous, single whorl, with corrugated top, tubular or

companulate (bell shape), corolla is longer than calyx wide 1/3 of its length is divided
into 12 segments. Biseriate, outer series representing the true corolla whereas the inner
series consisting of petaloid staminodes.
19
Androecium: 6 perfect stamens, 6 staminodes, found in between the petals, epipetalous,

filaments are short, obliquely erect anthers, ovoid, yellowish brown colour basifixed four
celled anthers.
Gynoecium: Protogyny, stigma oblique, ovary superior multichambered, syncarpous

with villous ovary, the plancentation is axile
Fruit: It is a berry, persistent calyx at the apex of the fruit, the withered style is present.
Two types are common
1. Round shape
2. Oval shape / Ovoid
The epicarp is thin and rusty brown in colour, the monocarp is yellowish brown,
tender, granular, gelatinous material and unripe fruits are astringent and ripe fruits are
rich in flavour and sweetness.
Seed: Seeds are upto 12 in numbers some of the ovules may not be fertilized. Sometimes
enlarge abort, seeds are hard, black and laterally compressed, shiny and easily separated
from the pulp. The seeds are spread out in the central axis like a spoke in the wheel.
Anthesis and Pollination: Flowers open between 4 and 4.30 A.M. Anthers dehisce from
8.00 am to 10.00 pm. The flower remain fresh for nearly two days, stigma was found to
be receptive for two days before opening and continue to be receptive for 12 hours, the
peak stigma receptively from 8-10 am. Some trees bear flowers continuously in several
flushes throughout the year.
20
Exercise.5
Study of floral biology of grapes and pomegranate
Botanical *ame: Vitis vinifera
Sub Class : Polypetalae
Series : Disciflorae
Order : Celestrales
Family : Vitaceae
Genus : Vitis
Species : Vinifera
Habit: It is a perennial vine, stem cuttings are normally used for propagation and they
generally produce numerous adventitious roots. Shoot has several distinct parts namely
growing tip, nodes, internodes, buds, tendrils and laterals
Leaves: The Leaf arrangement on the shoot is distichous and alternate. The leaf consists
of petiole, leaf bract and blade. The petiole is cylindrical. Tendrils coil around the
support.
Flower: They are borne in clusters, small green in colour usually perfect.
Calyx: 5 sepals, green in colour.
Corolla: 5 petals firmly united at the tip, shed as a little cap at the time of blooming.
This cap like corolla is called as calyptra.
Stamens: 5 opposite to each petal anthers are bi-lobed each containing 2 pollen sacs.
Pistil: The ovary is enlarged and contain four ovules.
21
Anthesis & pollination: Flower opening starts usually between 7-7.30 am and completes
by 10.30 A.M. The petals open from base. The cap like calyptra comes out of the flower
as cap like structure and fall down at the time of flowering. Pollens are yellow in colour.
The fruit set by
1. Stimulative parthenocarpy : Pollination and fruit set occur based on the stimulus
from the pollen and produce seedless fruits.
2. Stenospermocarpy: Pollination and fertilization takes place but embryo aborts and
thus produces seedless fruits.
POMEGRA*ATE
Botanical *ame: Punica granatum
Sub Class : Polypetalae
Series : Calyciflorae
Order : Myrtales
Family : Punicaceae
Genus : Punica
Species : Granatum
2n = 16, 18
Origin – Iran
22
It is used for dessert purpose. Juice and jelly are also prepared from the fruit. It is
rich in pectin.
Taxonomy: Punica protopunia is a wild species
There are two sub species.
P. chlorocarpa
P. porphyrocarpa
Habit: It is a small ever green tree, the trunk is thin branched near the base, the tree is
ever green under tropical condition, deciduous under sub -tropical condition.
Leaves: Opposite often densely crowded on small axillary branched, short petioled.
Infloresence: Dichasial cyme, two prominent bracteole at the base of the flower which
carry one flower, each in the axile .
There are three types of flowers
1. Male flower
23
2. Hermaphrodite
3. Intermediary
Male flower has a rudimentary style. Hermaphrodite is perfect flower with long
protruding style beyond the staminal column. The intermediary flower has style rearching
upto or below the staminal column.
Flowers: Individual flowers are sub sessile, larger, regular, red colour bracts are minute,
placed in whorl under flower, receptacle at the base of the flower, above the ovary fleshy
thick annular disc is present which is adjacent to the calyx.
Calyx: The segments are 5 to 8 thick mm fleshy gamoseplous and persistent
Corolla: Petals usually as many as sepals are alternating with them wrinkled, falling of
after anthesis, dark red colour, pinnately nerved, and imbricate aestivation
Androecium: Numerous stamens inserted irregularly on the disc unequal in length.

Filament light red slightly curved at the apex. Anther elliptic & dorsifixed.
Gynoecium: Inferior ovary 3-7 celled, cells 1-3 superposed whorls, ovules in each cells
are numerous. Style solitary with a conically thickened base yellowish red stigma
depressed globous and faintly grooved.
Fruit: Large glabrous berry known as ‘ Balusta’, 5-12 cm in diameter brownish yellow
to red, surmounted by a persistent calyx at the stylar end. Rind coriaceous. Seeds
numerous encircled by pink juicy pulp called aril. Seeds are angular, albuminous hard
within the outer layer of the testa is thinly fleshy and juicy with a refreshing sour and
sweet taste. It is pink yellow or white in colour and edible.
Anthesis and pollination: Time varies from variety to variety. In Some variety 7 am and
in some cultivars by 12 noon. Dehiscense of anthers takes place 3 to 31/2 hrs after
anthesis. Optimum temperature 37 to 38˚C.
24
Exercise.6
Study of pollen fertility in major fruit crops
The science of pollen and spores has demonstrated the utility of palynological
studies to the taxonomists and palentologists. Pollen has a very important role in the flow
of genes in plants. Especially in plants that are out crossing, pollen which is a carrier of
male gametes, composition, morphological structure and their chemical composition,
physiological and biological significance. The three domains of pollen grains include
exine, intine and nucleus.
The complex exine structures of pollen are storage site for carbohydrate,
glycoproteins, lipids, terpenoids and phenolics. The pollen nucleus is rich in chromatin
materials and viable pollen stains pink to deep red with acetocarmine, while sterile
pollens does not take any stain because of absence of nucleus or non- living nucleus and
thus remains almost white or transparent. Pollen viability differs between crops and even
in crops like banana, differs between genome groups and within genome groups.
Different species and cultivars possess different levels of competency in the production
of microspores, which correlated positively with levels of pollen fertility .A viable or
fertile pollen is one which after smearing on the stigma of the same plant or other plants
of the same variety or species, under normal conditions would start growing a pollen tube
and finally discharge its male gametes in the embryo sac effecting fertilization. Pollen
fertility status can be determined by using pollen viability tests invitro is very important
in fruit production in flowering plants. Therefore, the pollen fertility knowledge for any
plant species is essential for plant breeders. The pollen viability test in vitro can be done
by acetocarmine staining technique. Another method of stain can be used for this purpose
are methylene blue.
Preparation of Acetocarmine 1% solution
Take 45 ml of glacial acetic acid
Add 55 ml of distilled water
25
Boil it and add 1g of carmine to it
Boil for few minute and cool it
Filter in whatman filter paper No: 1
The prepared solution will have a clear red colour. To get 2% acetocarmine
instead of 1g carmine add 2g of carmine.
Staining of pollens
Take a clean glass slide and allow fresh pollen to fall on the slide by gently
crushing and tapping the anthers. Add one drop of acetocarmine and cover it with
coverslip. Then watch under microscope. Pollen grains which stain well and look plump
and normal are considered to be viable and the shriveled and unstained ones are non-
viable.
Number of stained pollens

Percentage of pollen viability =
Total number of pollen grains
The mean pollen stainability of diploids in banana was reported to be more than
66.2%. In wild species the stainability was more than 90%.
26
Pollen germinability
Pollen germinability is also an another criteria which determines pollen fertility
Procedure for estimation of pollen germinability

Male flowers are collected from newly opened branch 6.30am to 10.00 am. Pollen
is dusted onto a cover glass so that a uniform spread is obtained. Three to four drops of
the germination medium was placed on a clean glass is carefully inverted on the medium
without trapping air. The slides are viewed under a light microscope under 10-40
magnification. For each genotype, two slides are prepared per germination medium and
six fields are selected per slide. The slides are placed horizontally on a slide rack that is
placed in a moist glass humidity chamber and incubated at room temperature for 24 hr.
The number of germinated and non germinated pollen were recorded from the marked
areas of each slide after 3 hours and then after 24 hours. The media for pollen
germination can be prepared by a mixture of 10 ppm boric acid with 10 per cent sucrose
solution
Total germinated pollen

Percentage of pollen germination = x100
Total pollen
27
Practical exercise: Estimate the pollen viability and germinability in the following fruit
crops
1. Mango
2. Banana
3. Papaya
4. Sapota
5. Grapes
6. Guava
28
Exercise.7
Study and practice of crossing technique in major fruit crops
Hybridization refers to mating or crossing of two plants or lines of diverse

genotypes to obtain a viable hybrid progeny.
Crossing technique in papaya
There are two major sex forms in papaya
1. Dioecious in which male and female trees are separate

2. Gynodioecious in which female and andromonoecious trees ( a tree having male
and bisexual flowers) are separate
The knowledge on the presence of variability, floral biology and hybridization
techniques are essential for a successful breeding programme.
Crossing technique
Peak anthesis takes places between 5 and 6 AM. Stigma becomes receptive one
day before anthesis and remains for to 6 days. Maximum receptivity on the day of
anthesis. Anther dehiscence starts in 18 to 36 hrs before the flowers open flowers have to
be emasculated one day before anthesis and covered with butter paper bag. After being
pollinated with desired pollen, the flower has to be covered again to avoid cross
pollination since the stigma is receptive for 6 days.
Preparation of male inflorescence for hybridization
Since papaya is a cross pollinated plant, the bagging of male inflorescence of the
desired parents for hybridization about 24 hrs before pollination is necessary, in order to
avoid any pollen contamination.
Preparation of female inflorescence for hybridization
Before crossing, flowers of the female parent must be emasculated. This serves
two purposes, firstly it prevents self pollination and contamination and secondly it
exposes the stigma and facilitates cross pollination.
29
I. Sibmating in dioecious papayas
Covering the male and female inflorescence one day before sibmating.
(Selection of plants having typical ideo type of the variety is important for both male and
female)
Next day morning the male buds that are going to open on that day have to be collected
before opening
After removing the cover, transfer the pollen from male bud (petal removed) to female
flower.
Three male flowers can be used for dusting one female flower for high seed content
The female flowers have to be covered and proper labeling should be done
II. Selfing in gynodiocioecus papaya
Covering or bagging of bisexual flower is sufficient for getting selfed seeds in

gynodioecious varieties (or) it may be sibmated with male flowers of the same population
or emasculated bisexual flower or female flowers.
III. Hybridization
The procedure is same as that of sibmation of dioecious varieties but the male
parent is the plant of our choice. In gynodioecious varieties, if we use the female parent,
just covering of female parent is sufficient. If we use andromonoecious tree, the bisexual
flower has to be emasculated and covered with paper bags.
30
Crossing technique in banana
Flower types
Inflorescence develops from heart of pseudostem, type of inflorescence is spadix.

The interesting feature of banana inflorescence is the production of a series of different
types of flowers i.e, female, hermaphrodite and male in the same floral stalk.
Type of inflorescence
• Most common type of inflorescence consists of pistillate flowers at basal portion

which develop in to the fruits with deciduous staminate flowers (eg) poovan,
monthan. Sometimes male bud (heart) continues to produce staminate flowers till
the fruit ripen but in Nadan, the heart withers and dries long before the maturity of
the bunch.
• Second group of inflorescence does not possess male bud. The whole inflorescence
bears pistillate flowers and hence all the flowers develop into fruits (eg) Thatilla
Kunan, Ayirankai Rasthali and Moongil.
• In the third type of inflorescence basal flowers develop into fruits followed by
persistent male flowers consisting of green rudimentary ovaries with persistent
perianth and bracts (eg) Dwarf Cavendish, Nendran.
• In the fourth type of inflorescence basal portions having female flowers developed
into fruits followed by persistent male flowers, which is again followed by
deciduous male flowers. The bract of persistent male flowers are deciduous (eg)
Rasthali and Chakkarakeli.
Crossing Technique
All crosses were carried out between 6.30 AM and 9.30 AM. Unopened anthers
should be collected just prior to dehiscence from the inflorescence (preferably 10th to
22nd node) which had entered the male phase after completion of female and neutral
phases. The anthers were twist and forced to dehisce; pollens are collected and smeared
on the surface of receptive stigma of the female flowers. The crosses flowers were then
31
covered with brown paper cover and tagged with information regarding date of crossing
and male parent used for crossing. The bags were removed after a week.
Crossing technique in citrus
Citrus flowers are large, hermaphrodite, borne solitary and have numerous
stamens present in many whorls. Lime and lemons have staminate flowers also. For
hybridization, parents with complimentary characters are selected. The mature flower
buds on the female parent are emasculated early in the morning on the day of opening
and are bagged. The flowers to be used as male parent are bagged the pervious day
evening and the next morning as the day warms up, the anthers dehisce releasing the
pollen grains when these flowers can be plucked to pollinate the receptive stigmas or
emasculated flowers. The pollinated flowers are bagged, opened after about a week and
allowed to mature into ripe fruits. In some cases, especially when the trifoliate orange is
used as male parent, difficulties are encountered as its flowering is over before other
citrus varieties flower. Therefore, pollen has to be stored at low humidity and
temperature.
32
Exercise.8
Study of polyembryony in certain mango and citrus species
Polyembryony
The phenomenon in which more embryos are present within a single seed is
called polyembryony. It may result due to (a) nucellar embryony e.g., Citrus (b)
development of more than one nucleus within the embryosac (in addition to the egg
embryo during the early stages of development) leading to multiple embryos
(e.g.conifers).
Occurrence of polyembryony is widespread in all citrus species but the number of

embryos per seed varies from species to species. In rough lemon, it varies from 3 to 5; In
mango certain cultivars are reported to be polyembryonic with the number of embryos
ranging from 2 to 10 and the germination per cent from 40 to 87. Polyembryonic
seedlings can be identified from its true seedlings by their uniformity and vigour in
growth, while the seedling obtained from fertilized embryo will be weak. The greater
vigor in polyembryonic nucellar seedlings is probably due to the elimination of viruses.
Polyembryony in mango
In India, majority of the cultivated types are monoembryonic. Surprisingly

polyembryonic types were grown only in southern India, especially in coastal parts of
Kerala, Karnataka and Goa. Emergence of multiple seedlings from a single seed is
referred to as polyembryony. This was observed in 59 families, 158 genera and 239
species. The segregation pattern of individuals originating from selfing of several
monoembryonic cultivars and one polyembryonic line indicated that polyembryony in
mango was of genetic nature. All the plants originating from monoembryonic cultivars
bore monoembryonic fruits. Monoembryonic to polyembryonic segregation pattern was
observed at 1:3 ratio among individuals originated from the polyembryonic line,
indicating that polyembryony in mango is under the control of a single dominant gene
(Aron et al.1996). Polyembryonic mango varieties are chandrakaran, kurukkan, olour,
Bapakkai which can be used as rootstocks for propagation for imparting uniformity in the
scion since they are of true to type.
33
Polyembryony in citrus
In citrus, only C.medica (Citron) and C.grandis (Pumelo) are monoembyonic,

while all others are polyembryonic in nature. Though nucellar embryony in citrus is of
great value for producing vigorous, uniform and virus free plants, it is an obstacle in
hybridization. In polyembryonic cultivars, the vigorous growth of nucellar embryos
inhibits the growth of the zygotic embryo and causes its degeneration prior to seed
maturation. Such abortive embryos can be rescued by tissue culture.
Polyembryony constitutes one of the major problems in citrus improvement

because it makes difficult to identify the hybrids, particuarly in crosses involving
taxonomically closely related parents, despite recently developed techniques for solving
the problem, It is well known that the degree of polyembryony of a citrus variety is
influenced by the environment, variations are observed from seed to seed, fruit to fruit,
and from sector to sector in the same plant and from year to year.
34
Exercise.9
Study of different sex forms of papaya, their anthesis time
Papaya is a polygamous species; many forms of inflorescence have been reported.

In general there are three types of flowers namely staminate, pistillate and
hermaphrodite. Storey (1958), however, classified papaya flowers into eight broad
categories based on the modifications of sex expression. They are
staminate
teratological staminate
reduced elongata
elongata
carpelloid elongata
pentandria
carpelloid pentandria
pistillate
Staminate flower is produced by male plant, while teratological staminate flower

is produced by sex reversing male plants. Pistillate flower is produced by female plants.
Elongata, reduced elongata, carpelloid elongata, pentandria and carpelloid pentandria
are normally produced by hermaphrodite plants.
According to Storey (1958), there are 15 comparable classes found in male plants
as well as in hermaphrodite plants. There are 32 heritable sex forms in papaya.
Cultivated papayas belong to two major sex forms.
Dioecious form
The seeds of dioecious form when grown segregate into male and female trees in
the ratio of 1:1. These types are less influenced by environmental conditions.
Occasionally during summer months, certain male trees (teratological staminate)
staminate produce bisexual flowers which set fruits having viable seeds. This is called
sexual ambivalence and such seeds produce male and female trees in the ratio of 1:2
35
Gynodioecious form
The seeds of gynodioecious form when grown segregate in the ratio of 1:2.
Andromonoecious tree bears bisexual as well as male flowers in one and the same
inflorescence. Like teratological staminate trees, andromonecious trees are also
influenced by changes in temperature. When temperature falls below 20ºC at flower
development, the stamens of the bisexual flowers adhere to the ovarian wall, giving a
mis-shapened fruit called cat-faced fruit or stamen carpellody. When temperature goes
above 38ºC with low humidity, the flowers and fruits drop off. This phenomenon is
called summer-skip. Gynodioecious varieties, are, therefore, not recommended for
commercial cultivation for regions having extremes of temperature.
Genetics of sex and sex inheritance pattern
The genetics of sex determination, the hypothetical genes involved and the
hypothetical structure of the sex chromosomes have been discussed by Storey, 1953
and Horovitz, 1954.
Genes
The sex determining genes can be symbolized as
MSm -staminate
MHm - hermaphrodite
mm - pistillate
Sex inheritance
S.*o Cross/self Female 0+ Male *onviable
1 Mm x M1m 1mm - - -
2 Mm x M2m 1mm 1M2m - -
3 M2m x M2m 1mm 2M2m - 1M2M2
36
4 M1m x M1m 1mm - 2M1m 1M1M1
5 M2m x M1m 1mm 1M2m 1M1m 1M1M2
6 M1m x M2 m 1mm 1M2m 1M1m 1M1M
Anthesis and pollination: It is highly cross pollinated crop. Anthesis occurs between
6.30 am to 8.30 am. Mostly all the flowers will open in the morning. Anther dehisces
immediately after anthesis. Wind pollination and pollination through small insects like
thrips and ants were noticed. Flower is nocturnally pollinated by moths. Parthenocarpy is
also noted.
37
Exercise.10
Visit to Biotechnology Lab & study of in– vitro breeding techniques
In vitro techniques can be applied in the following areas in fruit breeding and
cultivation
1. In vitro mass multiplication
2. Zygotic embryo culture to overcome breeding hurdles
3. In vitro mutation breeding
4. Genetic transformation
1. In vitro techniques for mass multiplication

Shoot tip culture
Uniform plants, uniform flowering, better field establishment, short duration,
increased production and productivity are the advantages of tissue cultured plantlets.
Eg: Banana
Zygotic embryoculture
The sterile and parthenocarpic nature of certain plants are the greatest impediment
for genetic improvement through hybridization. Even under conditions when sterility
barriers are overcome, seed germination and regeneration is still a problem due to factors
like dormancy, presence of inhibitors etc. In this context, embryo culture comes to
rescue. It is the technique where fully matured embryos or inherently weak, immature,
hybrid embryos are regenerated into plantlets in normal MS medium without plant
growth regulators
Eg: Grapes- Inter- generic hybrid embryos of papaya
Embryo rescue techniques can be applicable under the following circumstances

• Triploidy nature of the plants
• In vitro germination not possible
• Shortening of breeding cycles
• Seed dormancy in banana
38
• Haploids can be produced

• Ovule culture is possible
Conditions at which embryo rescue is practiced
a. Hard seed coat and seed dormancy in oil palm

b. Haploid embryo could be retrived by embryo rescue
c. Ideal technique for studying the morphogenesis and nutritional requirement of the
developing embryo
Embryo /Ovule culture
• It is not possible to obtain hybrid progeny in grape crosses involving seedless

parents as female parent
• Embryo culture allows recovery of plants from triploid progenies obtained from
diploid and tetraploid crosses
• Ovule culture 45 days of post pollination gave 12% success as compared to 1%
success at 40 days old ovule.
• Seedless grape berries developed either through parthenocarpy (ovule fertilization
is not required) and stenospermocarpy (ovule fertilization is required)
Embryogenic Cell suspension culture (ECS)
Somatic embryogenesis is aimed at two main objectives – the development of

high performance micropropagation and regeneration system useful for transformation.
Embryogenesis is considered as a model for testing the totipotency of crop tissues.
Although embryogenic cell suspensions are obtained and plants are regenerated from
them, it would be an overstatement to say that the production of embryogenic cell
suspensions from meristem or immature flowers would be routine and free from
problems.
In vitro mutation breeding

Mutation is a sudden heritable change in characters of an organism. Mutation may
be the result of a change in a gene, a change in chromosome that involves several genes.
Two types of mutations, spontaneous and induced mutations, Macro mutation occurs in
large population on single plant basis.
39
Genetic transformation
The term genetic transformation refers to ability to move DNA into a foreign
organism and alter its genotype. This technique plays major role in basic and applied
molecular biology.
1. Physical
2. Chemical
3. Biological
Physical method
Biolistic / gene gun particle bombardment, electrophoresis, Micro injection.
Chemical method
PEG – Poly Ethylene Glycol
Biological Method
Agrobacterium mediated transformation of ECS using reporter genes
Different types of genetic transformation methods are available to introduce DNA

in to plant cells. Of which, Agrobacterium tumefaciens mediated transformation is the
most commonl followed method because of its delivery of single copy number. Also it
was proved that besides transformation of dicot plants, Agrobacterium infects monocots
and animal cells. Various types of target tissues are used according to the plants and their
regeneration systems for Agrobacterium mediated genetic transfer of DNA. For banana,
regeneration system using explants like immature male flower bud, suckers etc. The
embryogenic cell suspension (ECS) can be developed from immature male flower bud.
The ECS are used as target tissues for genetic transformation because of its high
regeneration potency and reliability in transgenic recovery.
Biolistic transformation of ECS using reporter gene
In this method, the foreign DNA containing genes to be transferred is coated onto
the surface of minute gold or tungsten particles (1-3 micrometers) and bombarded onto
the target tissue or cells using a particle gun. Two types of plant tissues are commonly
used for particle bombardment namely primary explants and the proliferating embryonic
tissues. The coating of DNA with gold or tungsten is achieved by the use of either
40
calcium components or potassium components. The tungsten coated DNA fragments are
purified with the use of alcohol precipitation and finally loaded on to the cartridge.
Finally the chamber is vacummed and using helium gas, blasting is done.
Electroporation
It involves a pulse of high voltage applied to protoplasts/cells/tissues to make

transient (temporary) pores in the plasma membrane which facilitates the uptake of
foreign DNA. The cells are placed in a solution containing DNA and subjected to
electrical shocks to cause holes in the membranes. The foreign DNA fragments enter
through the holes into the cytoplasm and then to nucleus.
Micro injection
Direct mechanical introduction of DNA under microscopic field. This method is

effective for protoplast tissue. A target can be a defined cell a multi cellular structure,
embryos, ovules, meristematic cells. By examination with microscope, cell is held in
place with gentle suction, while being manipulated using blunt capillary. Fine pipette is
used to insert the DNA into cytoplasm and nucleus.
PEG Mediated transfer
This is used for protoplast fusion. This process involves 3 steps.
1. Adhesion of liposomes to protoplast surface

2. Fusion of liposomes
3. Release of plasmid inside the cell.
DNA enters protoplast due to endocytosis of liposomes.
41
Exercise.11
Exposure to resistance breeding & screening techniques
Resistance breeding involves selection of superior genotypes which are acting as

donors for conferring resistance to pests, diseases and nematodes in fruit crops.
Screening techniques for banana nematodes
Nematodes were important pests in banana which cause about 40-60% yield loss.
They produce symptoms like stunted growth and slight yellowing of leaves. Root knot
nematodes produce yellowing cum margin drying. There are four major nematodes in
banana
Burrowing Nematode - Radopholus similis
Lesion Nematode - Pratylenchus coffeae
Root knot Nematode - Meloidogyne incognita
Spiral Nematode - Helicotylenchus muficinctus
Extraction of *ematodes from Cobb’s decanting and sieving method (Cobb, 1918)
This method is based on the principle of gravity. Hence the differences in size and
specific gravity between nematodes and other soil components are utilized. Heavier
particles settle down more easily compared to the lighter ones. Nematodes being light in
weight can be separated out from other matters using the set of sieves with specific mesh
number for this purpose. The mesh numbers and pore aperture are as follows.
Mesh *umber Pore aperture
20 240
60 250
100 150
200 75
350 45
42
The step-by step procedure is as follows
1. Mix the soil sample thoroughly and place 250ml of sample using a 250 ml plastic
beaker into a 5 liter plastic bucket.
2. Add a litre of water to the plastic bucket and mix thoroughly.
3. Hold the bucket for about 10 seconds to permit the heavy soil particles and stones to
settle down. The decant is passed through a coarse sieve (Mesh No.20) into another
plastic bucket B. During this process, the nematode is carried to the plastic bucket B
along with the water suspension. The plant debris and stones are collected in the 20 mesh
sieve which can be discarded.
Extraction of *ematodes from roots and other plant materials
Objective: To extract nematode from plant parts
The contents of the bucket B are mixed again and held for 10 seconds and decant
the suspension through a fine sieve (350 mesh) where the nematodes will be retained in
the sieve. Repeat the process once again using the same 350 mesh to ensure cent per cent
collection of the nematodes in the fine sieve.
The contents of 350 mesh sieve may be washed using a squeeze bottle with a slow
jet of water to remove soil as for as possible and transfer the nematode suspension into a
plastic beaker.
Identification and Estimation of population Method
I. Direct Extraction
1. Wash the infected plant materials thoroughly and chop into small pieces.
2. Put this material in a petridish containing water
3. Migratory and endo/ semi-endoparasitic nematodes that come out of the chopped
material and moving into water can be seen directly under microscope.
43
4. Alternatively the chopped materials can be processed by modified Baermann’s funnel

technique.
II. Root incubation method
Procedure
1. Wash the roots to remove the adhering soil particles
2. Place the longitudinally cut wet roots in half of the polythene bag and glass jar.
3. Seal the jar by screwing the lid with a few loose turns or secure the polythene bag with
rubber band.
4. Incubate at 15˚C for 72 h.
5. Remove the nematode, which have migrated out of the roots by flushing the roots with
water for three times.
Picking of *ematode
1. Take the nematode suspension in a cavity block or petridish and focus the nematode
under a low magnification in stereomicroscope.
2. Lift the nematodes to the surface of the water while focusing along floating nematode.
3. Flick the nematode quickly up so that the nematode is pulled out through the meniscus.
After staining and fixing nematodes using lactophenol methods, the nematodes can be
counted.
Direct counting
Roots are easily examined when distributed in a small amount of glycerin on a

petridish. Making a grid on the pretridish aids in counting the nematode under a
stereoscopic microscope.
44
Extracting *ematodes
Considerable time is required for direct counting of nematodes inside large root
systems. Roots may be macerated in warring blends. Nematodes can be separated from
the root tissue by sieving. However care must be taken to ensure that the nematodes are
not ruptured or destained during maceration.
Screening technique for disease resistance in banana
Screening techniques for Fusarium wilt in Banana
The fusarium wilt of banana caused by F. oxysporum f.sp. Cubense is one of most
destructive diseases of banana in the tropics.
Field evaluation of banana plants for disease tolerance in soils infested with
Fusairum oxysporum f.sp.Cubense (FOC) had been found to be effective. The process is
slow as disease expression usually takes 4-5 months, while inoculum concentration,
edaphic conditions, temperature and other variables that may affect disease expression
are difficult to control. An alternative method of screening seedlings at the nursery stage
has been found to be effective.
Plantlets were transferred to the double-container apparatus for hardening and

grown in the greenhouse until they attain the desired size. Test plantlets were carefully
uprooted and only those with healthy white roots were selected for inoculation by
immersion in the appropriate conidia suspension for two hours before being tagged and
replanted in the trays for maintenance and observation in the greenhouse.
Plantlets were watered using Hoagland’s complete nutrient solution consisting of

a) macronutrient and b) micronutrients. Macro-and micro –nutrients were dissolved in 1
litre of sterile distilled water.
Leaf symptoms on susceptible plants were observed within 10 to 14 days. The

numbers of leaves that showed disease symptoms were recorded after the first two weeks
and again after four weeks. Final evaluation on the 5th week was based on the leaf
symptom index (LSI) and rhizome discolouration index (RDI).
45
Scales of leaf symptom index (LSI) are:
1. No streaking or yellowing of leaves. Plant appears healthy.
2. Slightly streaking and / or yellowing of lower leaves
3. Streaking and / or yellowing of most of the lower leaves. Discoloration of the
younger leaves may be just beginning to appear.
4. Extensive streaking and / or yellowing on most or all of the leaves
5. Dead plant
Scales of the rhizome discoloration index (RDI) are
1. No discolouration of tissue of stellar region of rhizome or surrounding tissue.
2. No discolouration of stellar region of rhizome, discoloration at junction of root
and rhizome.
3. Trace to 5% of stellar region discoloured
4. 6-20% of stellar region discoloured
5. 21-50% of stellar region discoloured
6. More than 50% of stellar region discoloured
7. Discolouration of the entire rhizome stele
8. Dead plant
After recording LSI and RDI, the overall disease severity index (DSI) for
leaf symptoms and rhizome discolorations for each treatment was calculated as
follows:
46
Σ (number of scale x number of seedlings in that scale)
DSI=
Σ (number of treated seedlings)
The DSI consists of four designation, namely resistant, tolerant, susceptible and
highly susceptible. IF the cultivar is resistant in LSI and tolerant in RDI, the cultivar is
considered to be tolerant. If RDI is tolerant and LSI is susceptible, the cultivar is
considered to be susceptible. The final status of the cultivar is considered to be resistant if
both LSI and RDI for each treatment show resistance. If one of the r esponse is tolerant,
the cultivar is then considered to be tolerant.
Translation of DSI scales
DSI Scales for LSI DSI Scale for RDI Translation
1 1 Resistant
Between 1.1 and 2 Between 1.1 and 3 Tolerant
Between 2.1 and 3 Between 3.1 and 5 Susceptible
Between 3.1 and 4 Between 5.1 and 8 Highly susceptible
47
Exercise.12
Practices in mutation breeding
Mutation is a sudden heritable change in a character of an organism. Mutation
may be the result of a change in a gene or change in a chromosome that involves several
genes of a change in a plasmagene.
Mutation breeding 1. Induced Mutation
2. Spontaneous Mutation
Induced Mutation Induced artificially
Two types Macro mutation
Micro mutation
Macro mutation occurs in large population on single plant basis.

Micro mutation occurs in population which consists of 30 numbers of plant eg.
Quantitative characters like yield.
Spontaneous mutation Naturally occurring mutations

Eg. Red Banana, Thatilla Kunnan, Adakka Kunnan, Then kunnan,Veneetu Kunnan
Monthan Sambar Monthan, Nalla Monthan, Sambrani,
Monthan, Pidi Monthan, Batheesa
Mutagen and Dose
Seeds may be either irradiated or treated with chemical mutagens. But vegetative
propagates are more easily irradiated than treated with chemicals.
The dose of mutagen should be such that it induces the maximum frequency of
mutations which it causes the minimum killing. Many workers feel that a dose close to
LD50 should be optimum. LD 50 is the dose which kills 50% of the treated individuals.
LD 50 will vary with the crop species and mutagens used. The dose of a mutagen may be
48
varied by varying either the intensity or concentration used. The dose of a mutagen may
be varied by treatment.
Mutagens 1. Physical mutagens
2. Chemical mutagens
Physical Mutagens:
Physical Mutagens 1. X rays
2. Gamma rays
They are mainly applied to growing points of vegetative propagalues to induce
mutagenesis. Physical mutagens applied in terms of kilo rads as lower doses eg.0.5 KR to
50 KR depending upon the crops.
Radiation:
Radiation 1. Ionizing Radiation
2. Non-Ionizing Radiation
Ionizing radiations
These radiations produce ionization as well as excitation in the atoms located in
their path. When an atom either loses or gains an electron, it becomes positively or
negatively charged called ionization. Ionizing radiations may be particulate, consist of
atomic particulate or non particulate having no particles but only photons of high energy.
1. X rays They are electromagnetic radiation produced by electrically
accelearated electrons in high vacuum. X rays are non-particulate high energy, sparsely
ionizing and most penetrating of the various radiations.
2. Gamma rays They are similar to X rays in physical and biological properties.
Gamma rays are produced from 60 Co radium, etc through radio active delay. Both x rays
and gamma rays are commonly used in mutation programmes.
3. Fast and thermal neutrons
Fast neutrons are produced during radioactive decay of heavier elements. When
graphite or heavy water reduces their velocity, they become thermal or slow neutrons.
They are unchanged particulate, highly penetrating and densely lionizing radiations.
Non-ionizing radiation
49
Such a radiation does not cause ionization but produces mutations. UV radiations
are known to induce both frameshift mutations (deletion or addition of bases) and base
pair substitutions. Mercury lamps that emit in the range of 250 to 290nm wavelength are
the source of UV light in laboratories.
Chemical Mutagens
1. Alkylating agents
Eg. Ethyl methane Sulphonate (EMS)
Methyl Methane Sulphonate (MMS)
Nitroso compounds N-Methyl, N nitro – N – nitroso – guanidine
2. Acridine dyes
Eg. Acriflavine, proflavine, acridine orange, acridine yellow, ethidium bromide
3. Base analogues
Eg. 5 bromocracil, 5-chlorouracil
4 Others
Eg. Nitrous acid, hydroxylamine, sodium oxide
Procedure for inducing mutants

Selection of the Variety
Generally, the variety selected for mutagen treatment should be the best
commercial variety of the crop. This is particularly so when polygenic traits are to be
improved.
Plant part to be treated

In sexually propagated crops, seeds are the most commonly used for mutagen
treatment. Pollens grains may be used in some cases. In clonal crops, buds or cuttings are
commonly used for mutagenesis. Radiations (except) UV rays can be applied to any part
or even whole plants. But chemical mutagens are best used with seeds. However, many
workers have used chemical mutagens with vegetative propagates also.
50
Mutagen treatment
The seeds or vegetative propagates are irradiated with the desirable dose and plant
in the field. The seeds to be treated with a chemical mutagen are first soaked in water for
a few hours. This initiates metabolic activities, seeds are then treated with desired dose of
the chosen mutagen, washed in running tap water to remove the mutagen and planted in
the field. The plants produced from mutagen treated seeds constitute the M 1 generation.
Selfed or clonal progeny of M1 plants give rise to M2 generation and those of M2 plants
constitute M3 generation.
Handling of M1 and subsequent generations

In self pollinated species, M1 plants should be deliberately selfed since they show
considerably male sterility which encourages cross pollination. The handling of M1 and
M2 etc. generations will mainly depend on whether oligogenic or polygenic traits are to
be improved. In sexually reproducing crops, both dominant and recessive mutations are
utilized for crop improvement.
In sexually reproducing crops, M1 and subsequent generations are multiplied by

asexual reproduction. Only dominant mutations can be used for improvement, recessive
mutations can be used only when clone used for mutagens treatment was already
heterozygous for the concerned gene.
Mutations usually occur in small sector of the meristem, such a situation is called
chimera, chimeras are either lose (or) are recovered as non-chimeric mutations
(depending on the type of chimera) in case of sexually reproducing crops. In clonal crops
special techniques may be required to maintain some types of chimera which are stable
and usable.
Precautions
Avoid crossing out M1.
Prevent mechanical mixtures.
51
Achievements
Mango – Rosica from Peruvian
Papaya – Pusa Nanha from local type
Grape – Marvel seedless from delight
Banana - Highgate from Grosmichel, Motta poovan from poovan
Orange – Washington Navel
Grapefruit – Marsh and Thompson seedless
52
Exercise.13
Botany, floral biology, selfing and crossing techniques for plantation crops
Coconut
Coconut is a monocotyledonous palm belonging to the family palmae. It has only

a single species ‘nucifera’ in the genus cocos, with the chromosome number of 2n=32.
The synonym for Cocos nucifera L. is cocos nana. The palms have a robust, cylindrical,
erect stem with a single growing point from where the successive leaf production takes
place producing a terminal crown with a single apical bud. Palms can grow upto 20-30
meters in tall cultivars and 10-15 meters in dwarf cultivars. Leaves are pinnate and, are
called ‘fronds’, which are generally 4 to 6 meters in length and 1.5 to 2 meters in width.
Leaves have a strong rachis to which the leaflets are attached on both sides. Around 200
leaflets are present in a frond. Leaflets are linear-lanceolate. Canopy of coconut (‘crown’)
consists of 28 to 36 fronds at the tip of the stem arranged in circular or ovular or semi
circular shapes. Generally one frond is added to the canopy every month and one frond is
abscessed from the stem. The inflorescence is protandrous. Unopened inflorescence looks
like a spadix within a spathe. It takes 44 months from inflorescence primordial initiation
to nut maturity. In a crown one can see all stages of inflorescence. In the ‘spadix’, the
pistillate flowers and staminate flowers are attached to spike like rachillae. As many as
200 to 300 male flowers and only one or a few female flowers are attached to these
rachillae. Male flowers are found 1 to 3 together, sessile and pale yellow in colour with
three small sepals, three larger petals and six stamens in two whorls. They have a
rudimentary pistil. Female flower is solitary, larger than male flowers in size, globose in
bud, enveloped by two small scaly bracteoles, three sepals and three petals, ovoid at
anthesis sub-oricularm sub-equal, persistant and enlarging in fruit, pistil with large
trilocular ovary, three sessile triangular stigmas and three nectaries near the ovary base.
Within two to three weeks after the spadix opens pollination takes place. Coconut is
mainly a cross pollinated crop. But the ‘dwarf’ type coconuts are predominantly self-
pollinated. It generally takes 12 months from pollination for a pistillate flower to develop
in to mature nut. Fruit is a globose, ovoid or ellipsoidal fibrous drupe. Tender coconuts
are generally 7 to 8 months old. Fruit(nut) has an outer greenish pericarp, fibrous middle
53
mesocarp and hard endocarp (shell).Inside the endocarp ,the fruit consists mainly of
solid, white endosperm(copra),liquid endosperm (nut water)and a single embryo.
Coconut has an adventitious root system, which goes to the depth of only 1.5 to 2 metres
but with a horizontal spread of 4 to 5 metres. Decayed roots are replaced regularly due to
the formation of new roots.
OILPALM
Oil palm is monoecious, with male and female

inflorescences produced separately on the same palm.
Investigation has shown that each flower primordium is a
potential producer of both male and female organs
though one or the other almost always remains
rudimentary. Rarely hermaphrodite inflorescences are
seen. It is a cross-pollinated crop with the female and
male inflorescences being produced in alternate cycles
(Hartley, 1988). Artificial pollination is resorted to when
specific hybrids are to be produced. Infloresceence is a OILPALM FEMALE FLOWER
compound spike or spadix carried on stout peduncle. An inner and outer spathe tightly
encloses the inflorescence before anthesis. Six to ten long bracts are seen below the
lowest spikelets. The female spikelets are thick and fleshy and develop in the axil of a
spinous bract. The flowers are arranged spirally around the rachis. An inflorescence
54
contains about 100 spikelets with over 4000 flowers. Each female flower along with two
small male flowers (normally abort) are protected by a bract. The tricarpellate ovary and
rudimentary androecium of the female flower are enclosed by a double perianth of six
sepaloid segments in two whorls. These in turn lie within two bracteoles. The sessile
stigma has three lobes, and hairy. The stigma curves outside at anthesis. The stigmatic
lobes are white to pale yellow in colour indicating receptivity.
The male spikelets are non spiny, long finger like structure, bearing 600-1200
male flowers,yellow in colour having aroma and mature from bottom to top. The flowers
consist of a perianth of six minute segments,a tubular androecium with 6 or rarely 7
anthers and a rudimentary gynoecium. A single inflorescence produces upto 50g pollen
over a period of 2-3 days.
The oil palm is almost exclusively wind

pollinated. The abundance of pollen attracts a
number of insects. They do not however visit
female flowers. The main pollinators are
Elacidobius kamerunicus, E.subviltatus, Mystrops
costaricensia and Thrips hawaiensi. Fruits ripen
within six months after pollination. The fruit is a OILPALM MALE FLOWER
sessile drupe. It consists of a pericarp, made up of exocarp (skin), mesocarp (pulp) and
endocarp (shell) surrounding the kernel. Kernel has a testa (skin), a solid endosperm and
an embryo. Shell thickness is of direct relevance to breeding. This is controlled by a
single gene (Beirnaert and Vanderveyan, 1941). The homozycote pisifera(sh-sh-)is shell
less. Generally, they are sterile, though some plants set fruits and varying degrees of
sterility are observed. The other homozygote dura (sh+sh+) has a thick shell. The
heterozygote tenera is the only form used for commercial planting because of thin shell
and higher mesocarp content.
55
Arecanut
The arecanut palm is a graceful, erect and un-branched palm reaching to a height
of upto 18-20m. The stem has scars of fallen leaves in regular annulated forms. The girth
of the stem depends on genetic constiotution, soil condition and plant vigour. The
arecanut palm has an adventitious root system. The crown of an adult palm contains 7-12
leaves. The leaves are pinnatisect and consist of a sheath, a rachis and leaflets. The leaf
sheath completely encircles the stem. It is about 54 cm in length and 15cm in breadth.
The average length of leaf is 1.65m, which bears about 70 leaflets. The leaflets are 30.0
to 70.0cm in length and 5.8 to 7.0cm in breadth depending on the position of the leaf.
Arecanut is monoecious with both male and female flowers occurring on the same
spadix. It is cross-pollinated (Bavappa and Ramachander , 1967). The male phase lasts
for 25-46 days. Female flowers are cream coloured and turning green within a week. The
flowers open between 02h and 10h. The female phase extends upto 10 days. The stigma
remains receptive upto 6 days (Murthy and bavappa, 1960a; Sharma Bhat et al., 1962a).
Pollen is generally carried by wind.
BETELVI*E
Betelvine belongs to genus Piper of the family piperaceae which is having about
10 genera and over 1000 species of herbs, shrubs and climbers. About 65 species have
been described in genus Piper. The species P.betle is a perennial dioecious
dicotyledonous creeper with semi woody stem which climbs by short adventitious roots.
Leaves are 5-20cm long, broadly ovate to slightly cordate and often unequal at the base,
56
shortly acuminate, acute, entire with often an undulate margin, glabrous, yellowish to
dark green, shining on both the surfaces; petiole is stout, 2.0 to 2.5 cm long. The plant
produces orthotropic (vegetative) and plagiotropic (reproductive) branches. Growth rates
in terms of stem elongation, number of leaves and branch production are higher in
vegetative branches compared to reproductive branches. Vegetative branches also
produce leaves with higher petiole length and intermodal length (Mithila et al., 2000) the
reproductive branches bear male or female flower in a plant. The male spikes arising
singly from leaf base are long, cylindrical and creamy –white to light orange in colour.
The spikes measure 40-55mm in length with a stalk measuring 19-26mm. individual
flowers are small, sessile, 5-7 lobed with 3-5 stigmas. During maturation, irregular
swellings called nodo sites are formed on the fleshy fruits and their number varies from
5-7. The mature fruits possess 2-20 spherical to oval, smooth surfaced seeds.
RUBBER
H. brasiliencis is a diploid with 2n = 2x = 3

(Majumdar, 194) with the basic chromosome
number x=9. An experimental tetraploid
(Saraswathyamma et al., 1984) and synthesis of a
triploid (Saraswathyamma et al., 1980) in the clone
RRII 105 were reported from India. A spontaneous
triploid (Nazeer and Saraswathyamma, 1987) and a
genetic variant with dwarf stature (Markose et al., 1981) were also reported from India.
The rubber tree is a sturdy, quick growing, erect, perennial, growing to a height of
about 30 m with an economic life span of over 30 years. It has a straight trunk with light
gray bark and the branches develope to form an open leafy crown. The leaves are
arranged in groups or storeys, each storey with a cluster of spirally arranged trifoliate
glabrous leaves and extra floral nectarines is present in the region of insertion of the
leaflets.
Hevea is a deciduous tree, which sheds leaves during Dec – Feb (wintering-partial
or complete) followed by refoliation and flowering. The plant is monoecious with
57
unisexual flowers produced in pyramid shaped panicles in the axils of leaves. The
panicles bear numerous small male flowers and fewer but bigger female flowers. The
female flowers are confined to the tip of the panicles and their branch lets. Ovary is
tricarpellary syncarpous, which on pollination develops into a three lobed dehiscent
capsule (regma) with three large mottled seeds. Pollination is by insects and fruits ripen
in 5-6 months after fertilization. Seeds contain an oily endosperm.
COCOA
The cocoa (Theobroma cacao) belongs to the family sterculiaceae. It is a wide-

branching evergreen tree, reaching upto 20 -25 feet in height and grows in the shade. It
starts bearing after 4 or 5 years but yields most between 15 and 25 years of age. It is an
evergreen tree with a typical growth habit, dimorphic with orthotropic vertical stem and
plagiotropic fan branches. Small white flowers come into bloom almost throughout the
year. Flowers, leaves and fruits can be seen at any time of the year, all together on the
same tree. Two peaks of harvests are made yearly. The plant is ‘cauliflorous’ with
flowers (and later fruits) protruding directly from the woody branches and trunk. The
fruit, or ‘pod’, reaches to one foot long and 2-4 inches in diameter. Fruit – indehiscent
drupe. Seeds recalcitrant, lacks dormancy.
Cocoa Flower
Flower – bud development is a slow process, taking 21-24 days for a newly
emerged flower to mature. The flowers are borne on long pedicels and having five free
sepals, five free petals, ten stamens and ovary with united carpels. The petals are very
58
narrow at the base but expanded into a cup shaped pouch and end in a broad tip or ligule.
The ten stamens, which form the androecium or male part of the flower, are in two
whorls. The outer whorl consists of five long non-fertile staminodes and inner whorl of
five fertile stamens. The stamens bear two anthers, which lie in the pouch of the
corresponding petal. The ovary has five parts containing many ovules arranged around a
central axis 30 -60 ovules. When a bud matures the sepals split during the afternoon and
continue to open during the night. In the following early morning, the flowers are fully
opened and the anthers release their pollen. Anthesis commence between 14.00 and 16.00
hrs and complete between 02.00 and 04.00 hrs the next day. Anther dehiscence
commences between 4.00 and 6.00 hrs and complete between 08.00 and 10.00hrs. The
style matures a little later. Stigma receptivity is high between 12.00 and 14.00hrs and the
same day is the best day for pollination and failure of fertilization will cause the flower to
abscise the next day.
59
Exercise.14
Study of pollen viability, emasculation and pollination procedures in plantation

crops
Areca nut
General mode of pollination is cross pollination. Overlapping of male phase and

female phase leads to self pollination. Pollen travels up to 1.2 kms. Wind is the main
agent of pollination. Spray of pollen suspension with sucrose results in 26% fruit set
against 12% in open pollination. About 30% of female flowers set fruits (nuts). It takes 8-
9 months for the fruits to ripe.
Cashew
Peak anthesis is between 9 am and 11 am, the stigma is receptive as soon as the
flowers open and remains receptive for 48 hours from anthesis. The anther dehiscence
takes place 1-5 hours after anthesis. Pollination takes place through bees which transfer
the sticky pollen to stigma.
Cocoa
Cocoa is cauliflorus – the flowers and fruits are borne on old wood of main stem
and fan branches and never on recent flushes. Pollination is effected by various small
insects. The most important group of pollinating insects are the midges mostly belonging
to the genus Forcipomyia. Cocoa flowers are also visited by many other insects such as
ants, aphids and fruit flies.
Pollen viability was found to be 97.1% by the acetocarmine staining method, and
in vitro pollen germination is 66.25%. Pollination by flying insects result in 25-50% cross
pollination of self-compatible trees. Cocoa trees produce large number of flowers but
only 1-5% of the flowers are successfully pollinated to produce pods.
60
Method of Hand pollination
For production of hybrids with specific objectives and to confirm the

compatibility reaction hand pollination is being practiced.
• A flower bud which will open the following day, recognized by its whitish colour
and swollen appearance, is selected.
• The bud is covered with hood of plastic tube/hose pipe piece (5cm x 1.5 – 2 cm
size), which is sealed to the bark using materials like plasticine/ glazeputty.
• The tube is covered with muslin cloth at the top, kept in place with a rubber band.
This ensures circulation of air and exclusion of insects.
• Opened flowers are collected from the desired male parent and stamens are
carefully taken out by pushing the corresponding petal.
• One entire anther with a part of the filament is deposited on the stigma.
• The style is surrounded by a ring of staminodes and if these are long, removal of
two or three staminodes should be done for easy access to style.
• Emasculation is not necessary due to the presence of self-incompatibility. For
selfing, hand pollination is done using stamens from the same flower.
• The pollinated flowers are labeled using tin foil pieces fixed in the cushion using
ball pins.
• The hoods are removed 24 hrs after pollination and in three to five days,
fertilization is confirmed by the visual swelling of the ovary.
• In order to prevent undue shedding and wilting of fruits from hand pollinations, it
is usual to remove all the developing fruits on the tree produced by open
pollination.
• Developing pods are covered with wire mesh after six to eight weeks to protect
them from mammalian pests.
• When flowers are plentiful a good operator can able to make 300 pollinations per
day along with marking of pollinated flowers, which will be resulting in 150 pods.
• If unpollinated, the flower abscises within twenty four hours and a conspicuous
feature of cocoa tree is the heavy loss of flowers at certain time intervals. A full-
61
grown tree may produce 10,000 flowers in a year, of which 50 to 100 will develop
as mature fruits. 1-50% set observed.
• Most pollination occurs in the morning and artificial pollination should always be
done before midday during fine weather.
Coconut
Pollination in coconut is effected through wind and insects. Among insects, bees
are major pollinating agents. After pollination, the unfertilized flowers turn to brown
colour and fall off from the inflorescence. About 25-40% of the female flowers reach
maturity. Pollen grains remain viable for 2-9 days after they are discharged. They can be
freeze dried and stored under vacuum for one year or more. Freeze dried pollen grains
can be transported at normal temperature and retain their viability for 4 months.
Hybridization techniques involves emasculation of male flowers before female flowers
become receptive, collection of mature flowers from pollen parent, extracting pollen
mixing pollen with diluents in a 1 : 9 ratio and dusting the mixture using a pollen
dispenser. The F1 hybrid production requires controlled hand pollination using isolation
bags.
Coffee
The inflorescence is a condensed cyme arising in leaf axils, on short peduncles

and subtended by bracts. Flowers are fragrant and white, appear in axillary clusters 2-
20per axil on primary and secondary branches during October – March. Buds remain
dormant until stimulated by rain or wetting. Pollination takes place 6 hours after flower
opening under bright light and warm windy conditions. Wind, gravity and bees are the
agents of pollination. Arabica is self-pollinated while Robusta is cross-pollinated.
Oil palm
Oil palm is a cross pollinated crop. Wind is considered to be the sole agent of
pollination until when insect pollinators like Elaediobius kamerunicus, Elaeidobius
sulvettatus, Mystrops costaricensia and Thrips hawaioensis are reported. Only
Elaediobius kamerunicus is available in India, the introduction of which has increased the
setting and fruit development and led to substantial increase in yield. Assisted pollination
62
is done to ensure fertilization of all female flowers. However it is not necessary, if

pollination weevil is introduced in the plantation. They congregate and multiply on male
inflorescence during flower opening. They also visit female flowers and pollinate them
effectively.
Rubber
Inflorescence is borne in the axils of the basal leaves of new shoots that grow out
after wintering during December – February, the inflorescence is a many branched
panicle, bearing flowers of both sexes. Pollination is mainly by insects like bees, midges
and thrips.
Tea
Flowers appear either solitary or in clusters of 2-4 with short peduncles in the
axils of scale leave on current season’s growth. Sepals and petals are 5-7 with numerous
stamens and superior ovary which is 2- 4 loculed. Pollination is carried out by insects.
Since tea is virtually self fertile selfing gives a much lower percentage of viable seeds.
63
Exercise.15
Production of hybrids in plantation crops
Arecanut
Hybridization programme in arecanut was initiated at Central Plantation Crops

Research Institute (CPCRI) Regional Station, Vittal, with specific objective of evolving
high-yielding and regular-bearing varieties, combining large-sized fruits with more
number of nuts/bunch, combining semi tall, early bearing and high yield of Mangala with
quality of Sreevardhan, transferring more number of female flowers and high fruit setting
percentage from A. triandra and studying the combining ability for exploitation of hybrid
vigour. Intervarietal hybridization carried out among Mangala, Sumangala, Sree
Mangala, Mohitnagar, Thirthahalli and Hirehalli Dwarf and evaluation of hybrid
seedlings with respect to their performance did not result in selecting useful arecanut
hybrids so far. Utilization of dwarf mutants seems to be encouraging. The attempts in the
direction to establish plantation with short-statured palms are in progress. Hirehalli Dwarf
x Sumangala cross is promising with respect to yield and combining the dwarf stature.
Coconut
Hybridization technique involves emasculation of male flowers before female

flowers become receptive, collection of mature flowers from pollen parent, extracting
pollen, mixing pollen with diluents in a 1:9 ratio and dusting this mixture using a pollen
dispenser. The F 1 hybrid production requires controlled hand-pollination using isolation
bags.
Two methods for commercial production of hybrids are adopted. They are
assisted pollination and mass-controlled pollination, assisted pollination is done in inter-
planted seed garden in which lines of seed parents, usually dwarfs, are alternated with a
smaller number of pollen parent rows of talls. This method is limited to one hybrid
combination. In mass-controlled pollination pollen is supplied to a seed garden that is
totally isolated. Different hybrid combinations can then be produced. In both cases, seed
gardens are surrounded by 200-300 m wide/barriers of non-coconut vegetation.
64
Individual palms are inspected daily, inflorescence ready-to-open are emasculated and
receptive flowers are pollinated.
Cashew
In order to combine prolific bearing with other desirable traits like bold nut,
cluster-bearing habit and compact canopy, hybridization with parents selected for these
could easily be commercially utilized in cashew through softwood grafting. Among the
15 hybrids released in India, 11 have kernel grade of W 180 to W 210. These 11 hybrids
have at least one of the parents with bold nut character (Brazil-18, K-30-1 and Vetore-56)
and thus prove the usefulness of selecting parents with bold nut character for transmitting
this trait to hybrid. Short duration of flowering (Anakkayam 1), high sex ratio and longer
mixed phase, intense branching, high shelling (%) and high nutritive value of kernels are
also looked in the parents. Fifteen varieties have been developed through hybridization
and selection.
65
Exercise.16
Visit to research institutes involved in Plantation Crops Research
66
Exercise.17
Practical Examination
67
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2017

Lecture Name Page No

The inherent nature of a long gestation period, high heterozygosity, scanty

History of fruit research

Fruit research in India was started at the Departments of botany in six

The initiative by the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research to provide

Fruit breeding is the manipulation of a biological system that requires many

Major problems in fruit breeding

Presence of sexual incompatibility e.g. mango, apple, pear, loquat etc.

Objectives of fruit breeding

For scion cultivars

Good keeping and transport quality

Importance of fruit breeding

General steps in fruit breeding

Introduction Population with total

1. Fruit research in India was started during 1905.

2. What do you understand by the terminology “Fruit breeding”?

3. Polyembryony exists in mango, citrus.

4. Excessive fruit drop is found in grapes.

5. Rootstocks should be resistant to biotic and abiotic stresses.

Centre of origin (Primary and secondary)

Pear (Pyrus communis)

Peach (Prunus persica)

Apricot (Prunus armeniaca)

Plum (Prunus salicina)

Mandarin (Citrus reticulata)

Mango (Mangifera indica)

Sour lime (Citrus aurantifolia)

Mandarin (Citrus reticulata)

Coconut (Cocos nucifera)

Banana (Musa sapientum)

Pistachio nut (Pistacia vera)

Almond (Prunus amygdalis)

Grape (Vitis vinifera)

Apple (Malus sp.)

Some species of apricot (Prunus armeniaca) and pear (Pyrus spp).

Primary centre of origin

Fig (Ficus carica)

Pomegranate (Punica granatum)

Some species of apple, Pyrus, Prunus and grape

Secondary centre of origin

Chestnut and pistachio nut

Mediterranean centre of origin – Example Pippermint (Mentha sp.)

It includes Ethiopia and hilly country of Eritrea. Example: Coffee.

Papaya (Carica papaya)

Guava (Psidium guajava)

Diversity in Horticultural crops

Another important aspect of HGR is their requirement of specific

HGR in indian gene centre

HGR management in India

North – Eastern region Pumpkin, cucumber, Okra, eggplant, chilli, pointed

Management of HGR is an important issue, especially for a country like India,

Regions in India with rich HGR diversity

1. Which one of the following has china as centre of origin?

a) Pears (Pyrus communis)

3. Name crops from Hindustan centre of origin.

• Mango (Mangifera indica)

• Mandarin (Citrus reticulata)

6. Expand HGR- Horticultural Genetic Resources

7. Expand (NBPGR) - /ational Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources.

8. National Gene bank (NGB) was established in the year 1996.

Polyploidy is pervasive in plants and some estimates suggest that 30-80% of